Differential Pressure Flowmeters

1. How do ColeParmer's differential pressure flowmeter work? A pressure drop is created as water or gas enters through the meter's inlet. The fluid is forced to form thin laminar streams that flow in parallel paths between internal plates separated or capillary tubes. The pressure differential created by the fluid drag is measured by a differential pressure sensor connected to the top plate. The differential pressure from one end of the laminar flow plates to the other end is linear and proportional to the flow rate of the liquid or gas.
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2. Do I need a filter? A 50-m filter is recommended to prevent impurities from clogging the laminar element.
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3. Can a differential pressure flowmeter handle turbulent flow? Yes; though meters are unidirectional a straight run of tubing or pipe is not required.
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4. My gas is not at STP/ or changes--will this work? Some non-thermal mass flowmeter versions are available for fluctuating stream temperature or pressure. These meters will automatically correct to STP.
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5. What are the advantages of a using a differential flowmeter? --can handle low flow gases and liquids --has an output signal for totalizing --switch selectable for different gases
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6. What are the limitations of using a differential flowmeter? --for use with clean liquids only --maximum liquid viscosity of 5 cps
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Doppler Flowmeters
1. How does a doppler flowmeter work? A high frequency signal is projected through the wall of the pipe and into the liquid. The signal is reflected off impurities in the liquid such as air bubbles or particles, and sent back to the receiver. The frequency difference between the transmitted and received signal is directly proportional to the fluid's flow velocity.
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2. Can I use a doppler flowmeter with particulates? Yes. In order to use a doppler flowmeter, the liquid must have particulates or bubbles. Most require a minimum size of 25 ppm or 30 m; check with each doppler flowmeter for specific particle size requirements.
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3. Some flowmeters measure in velocity (ft/sec). How can I convert the readings to volume/time? GPM= 2.45 * (ID in inches) * (VELOCITY in ft/sec) GPM= gallons per minute ID = inside diameter of the pipe in inches. This formula is for water--it does not consider viscosity, temperature, or pressure. However, temperature, viscosity, and pressure will not effect a doppler flow reading.
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4. What if my fluid is not water? The speed of sound through water is approximately 1470 ft/sec. Most instruments are calibrated for that rate. Other fluids may be used, but your instrument should then be recalibrated.
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5. Will pipe insulation/thickness affect my reading? Yes. Insulation should be removed before mounting the sensor.
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6. Must a doppler flowmeter be permanently installed? No. Because doppler flowmeters measure flow externally, most can be easily removed and moved from site to site.
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7. Does a doppler flowmeter require a minimum upstream straight pipe length? Yes. Doppler flowmeters require ten pipe diameters from any valve, tee, bend, etc. Doppler flowmeters also require a full pipe flow.
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8. What are the advantages of using a doppler flowmeter? --non-invasive --good for slurries, aerated liquids --portable
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9. What are the limitations of using a doppler flowmeter? --not suitable for clean liquids --requires straight upstream piping
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Mass Flowmeters
1. How does a mass flowmeter work? A volume of gas has a known mass at standard conditions. As pressure and temperature are applied, the volume will change, but the mass remains constant. Mass flowmeters measure flow based on the molecular mass of the gas; this measurement is independent of temperature and pressure. One technique to measure mass flow is to send a part of the flow through a sensor tube. In the tube, the gas is heated in a coil and then measured downstream. The temperature differential is directly related to the mass flow.
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2. Can a mass flowmeter give a total accumulation of gas?

Yes, most mass flowmeters have outputs of either 0-5 VDC or 4-20 mA. To monitor total accumulation, connect a totalizer/monitor with a matching input ( 0-5 VDC or 4-20 mA).
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3. Can I calibrate a mass flowmeter for my own gas mixture? This is possible as long as the mixture is not too complicated. Contact our applications Department for pricing and availability of gas mixture calibrations.
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4. Do I need a filter? Mass flowmeters require clean gases; generally any particles larger than 50 m require a filter upstream of the meter. Check each meter for specific requirements.
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5. What are the advantages of using a mass flowmeter? --measure mass directly --can handle applications whose stream temperature and line pressures fluctuate.
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6. What are the limitations of using a mass flowmeter? --calibrated to a specific gas type
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Paddle-Wheel Flowmeters
1. How does a paddle-wheel flowmeter work? Magnets are installed on each paddle of the sensor, which is inserted into the liquid. As the paddle turns, an electrical frequency output proportional to the flow velocity is generated.
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2. What if my liquid is foamy or turbulent? Because these sensors use laminar flow characteristics, foamy or turbulent liquids will not be read accurately. The sensors must also be installed in a full flowing, straight section of pipe.
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3. How long of a straight section of pipe do I need? For systems with no bends or restrictions, allow a minimum of 15 pipe diameters upstream and 5 pipe diameters downstream.
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4. What do I need for a paddle-wheel system? a. flow sensor b. pipe fitting c. meter or controller to read the signals from the sensor and indicate them in GPM or LPM
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5. My meter reads in GPM--the flow sensors are in ft/sec. How do I know which one is appropriate for my flow?

To convert from velocity to flow, use: GPM= ft/sec x (ID)2 x 2.45 GPM= gallons per minute ID = inside diameter of the pipe This formula is for water--it does not consider viscosity, temperature, or pressure.
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6. What do I need to know about my system when ordering? In order to correctly calibrate your flowmeter, we need to know: a. Type of fluid b. Expected flow rate c. Max. fluid temp and system pressure d. % suspended particles by volume e. Pipe size (ID), material, and wall thickness (schedule)
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7. What are the advantages of using a paddle-wheel flowmeter? --good repeatability --low pressure drop --easy maintenance
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8. What are the limitations of using a paddle-wheel flowmeter? --minimum upstream/downstream piping requirements --full pipe require.
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Turbine Flowmeters
1. How does a turbine flowmeter work? As liquid or gas flows through the turbine, it turns an impeller blade that is sensed by infrared beams, photoelectric sensors, or magnets. An electrical pulse is then generated and converted to a frequency output proportional to the flow rate.
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2. Can I use a turbine flowmeter with small particles? No. Turbine flowmeters are best used with clean, low-viscosity liquids.
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3. Do I need a minimum straight distance before the sensor? To maintain an even cross-sectional flow, it is recommended that there be a straight pipe length of at least 10x the meter's inner diameter upstream and at least 5x the meter's inner diameter downstream of the sensor. Check each flowmeter for specific requirements.
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4. What if I have air in my liquid? Some turbine flowmeters can be used with air. However, if there are air bubbles or vapor pockets in the liquid, the reading will be inaccurate. There should be a laminar (stable) flow through the cross-section of the pipe.

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5. What are the advantages of using a turbine flowmeter? --good accuracy with liquids --easy to install and maintain --signal output for totalizing --low flow rates available
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6. What are the limitations of using a turbine flowmeter? --sensitive to viscosity changes --straight pipe line required --clean liquids and gases only
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Variable Area Flowmeters/Rotameters

1. How does a rotameter work? Rotameters, or variable area flowmeters, operate on the principle that the variation in area of flow stream required to produce a constant pressure differential is proportional to the flow rate. The flowing fluid enters the bottom of the meter, passes upward through a metering tube, and around the float, exiting at the top. The flow rate is read by noting the position of the float against the calibrated scale etched on the glass
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2. Where do I take the reading? With the Cole-Parmer flowmeters, the reading is taken at the center of the float. It is recommended that the float be at eye level to minimize reading errors.
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3. What is the difference between correlated and direct reading rotameters? A direct reading flowmeter indicates the flow rate on its scale in specific engineering units (e.g. ml/min or scfh). Direct reading scales are designed for a specific gas or liquid at a given temperature and pressure. While it is more convenient than a correlated flowmeter, a direct reading flowmeter is less accurate and limited in its applications. A correlated flowmeter is scaled along either a 65mm or a 150mm length, from which a reading is taken. The reading is then compared to a correlation table for a specific gas or liquid. This will give the actual flow in engineering units. One correlated flowmeter can be used with a variety of fluids or gases.
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4. What if I use a gas or liquid other than water or air? What if I use distilled water? If you have a correlated flowmeter, give us the tube number and type of float, and we can fax you a correlation chart for the gases advertised in our catalog. We have a limited number of unadvertised gas correlations as well. For distilled water, use the correlation chart for water.
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5. Can I use a rotameter in a vacuum application or with back pressure? Yes, but if you have a valve, it must be placed at the outlet (top of the flowmeter). This is done by inverting the tube inside the frame, and then turning over the frame. At this position, the tube should read correctly from the original perspective and the valve should be at the outlet, or top of the flowmeter. This allows for proper control of the vacuum.

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6. Can I use one flowmeter to measure different flow rates? Yes. If a correlated flow tube is used, different flow rates can be attained by using different floats, i.e. carboloy, stainless steel, glass, or sapphire.
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7. What are the differences between a 150-mm vs. a 65-mm flowmeter? A 150-mm flowmeter has a 150 mm scale length and is graduated accordingly. It provides better resolution than the more economical 65-mm flowmeter.
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8. Must a rotameter be mounted vertically? Generally, rotameters must be mounted vertically, because the float must center itself in the fluid stream. At high flow rates, the float assumes a position towards the tip of the metering tube and at low flow rates positions itself lower in the tube. Some of our rotameters have spring loaded floats and therefore may be mounted in any orientation.
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19. Which float do I have? Glass floats are black, while the sapphire floats are red. Carboloy and stainless steal floats both look metallic, but the stainless steal floats are magnetic.
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10. What are the advantages of using a variable area flowmeter? --inexpensive --somewhat self-cleaning --no power required --available in different materials for chemical compatibility
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11. What are the limitations of using a variable area flowmeter? --no output for data transmission --sensitive to differing gas types and changes in temperature and pressure

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Choosing the Best Flowmeter

by Corte Swearingen. Originally in Chemical Engineering (July, 1999)

With the many flowmeters available today, choosing the most appropriate on for a given application can be difficult. This article discusses six popular flowmeter technologies, in terms of the major advantages and disadvantages of each type, describes some unique designs, and gives several application examples. Dozens of flowmeter technologies are available. This article covers six flowmeter designs - variable-area, mass, Coriolis, differential-pressure, turbine, and oval-gear. Table 1 compares the various technologies.
TABLE 1. A COMPARISON OF FLOWMETER OPTIONS

Attribu te

Variable -area

Coriolis

Gas mass -flow

DifferentialPressure

Turbine

Oval Gear

Clean gases Clean Liquids Viscous Liquids Corrosi ve Liquids Accura cy, Repeata bility, Max pressur e, psi Max temp., F Pressur e drop Turndo wn ratio Averag e cost*

yes yes yes (special calibration ) yes 2-4% scale full

yes yes

yes -

yes yes

yes yes yes (special calibration ) yes full0.25-1% of reading 0.1% of reading 5,000 and up 300 up and

yes yes, >10 centist okes (cst) yes 0.10.5% of reading 0.1% of reading 4,000 and up 175 and up mediu m 25:1 $6001,200 Figur

yes

no

yes 0.050.15% of reading 0.050.10% of reading 900 up 250 up low 100:1 $2,5005,000 and and

1.5% full scale 0.5% full scale 500 and up 150 and up low 50:1 $6001,000

no 2-3% scale

0.25% full scale 200 up 250 up and and

1% full-scale

100 122 medium 20:1 $500-800

medium 10:1 $200-600

medium 10:1 $6001,000

TABLE OF CONTENTS Choosing the Best Flowmeter

e1

The plasti /techinfo/techart/default.asp?art=var /techinfo/techart/default.asp?art=var Variable-area c or flowmeters glass tube /techinfo/techart/default.asp?art=mass/techinfo/techart/default.asp?art=massMass of the flowmeters variab /techinfo/techart/default.asp?art=coriolis/techinfo/techart/default.asp? leart=coriolisCoriolis flowmeters area /techinfo/techart/default.asp?art=press/techinfo/techart/default.asp?art=pressDifferential- flowm eter pressure meters lets /techinfo/techart/default.asp?art=turbine/techinfo/techart/default.asp?art=turbineTurbine the meters user visual /techinfo/techart/default.asp?art=gear /techinfo/techart/default.asp?art=gear Oval-gear ly flowmeters inspe /techinfo/techart/default.asp?art=ref/techinfo/techart/default.asp?art=refReferences ct the float, Variable-area flowmeters whos e Design overview positi on in the The variable-area flowmeter (Figure 1) is one of the oldest technologies available and tapere d tub arguably the most well-known. It is constructed of a tapered tube (usually plastic or is glass) and a metal or glass float. The volumetric flowrate through the tapered tube is propo proportional to the displacement of the float. rtiona l to the volum etric flowra te

Fluid moving through the tube form bottom to top causes a pressure drop across the float, which produces an upward force that causes the float to move up the tube. As this happens, the crosssectional area between the tube walls and the float (the annulus) increases (hence the term variable-area). Because the variable-area flowmeter relies on gravity, it must be installed vertically (with the flowtube perpendicular to the floor). Some variable-area meters overcome this slight inconvenience by spring loading the float withing the tube (Figure 2). Such a design can simplify installation and add operator flexibility, especially when the meter must be installed in a tight physical space and a vertical installation is not possible. Two types of variable-area flowmeters are generally available: direct-reading and correlated. The direct-reading meter allows the user to read the liquid or gas flowrate in engineering units (i.e., gal/min and L/min) printed directly on the tube, by aligning the top of the float with the tick mark on the flowtube. The advantage of a direct-reading flowmeter is that the flowrate is literally read directly off the flowtube. Correlated meters, on the other hand, have a unitless scale (typically tick marks from 0 to 65, or 0 to 150), and come with a separate data sheet that correlates the scale reading on the flowtube to the flowrate in a particular engineering unit. The correlation sheets usually give 25 or so data points along the scale of the flowtube, allowing the user to determine the actual flowrate in gal/min, L/min, or whatever engineering unit is needed. The advantage of the correlated meter is that the same flowmeter can be used for various gases and liquids (whose flow is represented by different units) by selecting the appropriate correlation sheets, where additional direct-reading meters would be required for different fluid applications. Similarly, if pressure or temperature parameters change for a given application, the user would simply use a different correlation sheet to reflect these new parameters. By comparison, for a direct-reading meter, a change in operating parameters will compromise the meter's accuracy, forcing it to be returned to the factory for recalibration. In general, the average accuracy of a variable-area flowmeter is 24% of fullscale flow.
Advantages The major advantage of the variable-area flowmeter is its relative low cost and ease of installation. Because of its simplicity of design, the variable-area meter is virtually maintenance-free and, hence, tends to have a long operating life.
Figure 2 This variablearea meter with a spring-loaded float can be installed at any angle. This accommodation is not available for traditional variable-are flowmeters, whose operation relies on gravity.

Another advantage is its flexibility in handling a wide range of chemicals. Today, all-Teflon meters are available to resist corrosive damage by aggressive chemicals. The advantage of a Teflon flowmeter with a built-in valve is that you can not only monitor the fluid flowrate, but you can control it, as well, by opening and closing the valve. If the application requires an all-Teflon meter, chances are the fluid is pretty corrosive, and many users would like the option of controlling the flowrate by simply turning a valve that is built into the flowmeter itself.
Disadvantages

One potential disadvantage of a variable-area flowmeter occurs when the fluid temperature and pressure deviate from the calibration temperature and pressure. Because temperature and pressure variations will cause a gas to expand and contract, thereby changing density and viscosity, the calibration of a particular variable-area flowmeter will no longer be valid as these

conditions fluctuate. Manufacturers typically calibrate their gas flowmeters to a standard temperature and pressure (usually 70F with the flowmeter outlet open to the atmosphere, i.e., with no backpressure). During operation, the flowmeter accuracy can quickly degrade once the temperatures and pressures start fluctuating from the standard calibration temperature and pressure. Meters used for water tend to show less variability, since water viscosity and density changes very little with normal temperature and pressure fluctuations. While there is a way to correlate the flow from actual operating conditions back to the calibration conditions, the conventional formulas used are very simplified, and don't take into account the effect of viscosity, which can cause large errors.

TABLE 2. THE EFFECT OF PRESSURE DEVIATIONS ON A VARIABLE-AREA FLOWMETER

Maximum flowrate, L/min

Fluid temperature, F

Outlet pressure, psi

2.23 1.65 1.30 2.26 2.28 2.32 4.82 4.82 4.82 4.86 4.89 4.95

70 70 70 90 110 150 70 70 70 90 110 150

0 15 35 0 0 0 0 15 35 0 0 0

As Table 2 shows, the effect of pressure deviations can be quite significant. This table was created using data from a variable-area flowmeter that was calibrated for air at 70F and with the outlet of the flowmeter vented to the open atmosphere (i.e. , 0 psi of outlet pressure). The flowmeter was calibrated to read a maximum of 2.23 L/min at this temperature and pressure. When the outlet pressure increases as all other parameters remain constant, the flowrate drops off. This pressure change affects the viscosity and density of the gas and will cause the actual flowrate to deviate from the theoretical, calibrated flowrate. This relationship is extremely important to be aware of, and underscores the difficulty in measuring gas flow. Also note that even though gas flowrate changes with a change in gas temperature (with all other parameters remaining constant), this effect is much less significant with air than with other gases. Table 2 shows this same variation with a meter calibrated for water at 9 psi venting pressure and a temperature of 70F. Here, one can assume water to be incompressible. As shown, there is no direct effect on water flow with a change in back-pressure. The temp-erature change is not that significant either. But, for various fluids, a change in temperature could change the viscosity enough to degrade the accuracy below acceptable limits. The bottom line is that the user must be aware of any variation between calibration conditions and operating conditions for gas flows, and must correct the reading according to the manufacturer's recommendations. Some users have the manufacturer calibrate the meter to existing conditions, but this presumes that operating conditions will remain the same - which they rarely do. The effect of viscosity changes is another potential disadvantage of the variable-area meter when measuring liquids. When a viscous liquid makes its way through a variable-area flowmeter, drag layers of fluid will build up on the float. this will cause a slower-moving viscous liquid to yield the same buoyant force as a faster-moving fluid of lower viscosity. The larger the viscosity, the higher the error. The general rule of thumb is as follows - unless the meter has been specifically calibrated for a higher-viscosity liquid, only water-like liquids should be run through a variable-area flowmeter.

Sometimes, for liquids that are slightly thicker than water, a manufacturer-supplied correction factor can be used without the need to recalibrate the whole meter. As always, check with the manufacturer if you plan on deviating from its calibration fluid and calibration conditions. For a more-detailed discussion of the proper correction equations to apply to variable-area flowmeters in both water and gas service when they deviate from standard conditions, consult Refs. 9 and 10. Applications Variable-area flowmeters are well suited for a wide variety of liquid and gas applications, including the following: Measuring water and gas flow in plants or labs Monitoring chemical lines Purging instrument air lines (i.e., lines that use a valved meter) Monitoring filtration loading Monitoring flow in material-blending applications (i.e., lines that use a valved meter) Monitoring hydraulic oils (although this may require special calibration) Monitor makeup water for food & beverage plants

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Mass Flowmeters
Design overview

Mass flowmeters are one of the most popular gas-measurement technologies in use today (Figure 3). Most thermal mass flowmeters for gases are based on the following design principles, which are shown in Figure 4. a gas stream moves into the flowmeter chamber and is immediately split into two distinct flow paths. Most of the gas will go through a bypass tube, but a fraction of it goes through a special capillary sensor tube, which contains two temperature coils.

Figure 3

Because the mass flowmeter measures mass flow rather than volumetric flow, this popular device is relatively undaunted by Heat flux is introduced at two sections of the capillary tube by means of these two fluctuations in line wound coils. When gas flows through the device, it carries heat from the coils pressures and upstream to the coils downstream. The resulting temperature differerential creates a temperatures, especially compared with a variableproportional resistance change in the sensor windings. area flowmeter. The unit provides an Special circuits, known as Wheatstone bridges, are used to monitor the instantaneous shown integral digital display, as resistance of each of the sensor windings. The resistance change, created by the temperature differential, is amplified and calibrated to give a digital readout of the well as a built-in control valve.

flow.

Click here for large image Figure 4 Inside a mass flowmeter, the gas is split. Most goes through a bypass tube, while a fration goes through a sensor tube containing two temperature coils. Heat flux is introduced at two sections of the sensor tube by means of two wound coils. As gas flows through the device, it carries heat from the upstream, to the downstream, coils. The temperature differential, generates a proportional change in the resistance of the sensor windings. Special circuits monitor the resistance change, which is proportional to mass flow, and calibrate it to give a digital readout of the flow.

Advantages The main advantage of a mass flowmeter for gas streams is its ability (within limitations) to "ignore" fluctuating and changing line temperatures and pressures. As mentioned above for variable-area flowmeters, fluctuating temperatures and pressures will cause gas density to change, yielding significant flow errors. Because of the inherent design of the mass flowmeter, this problem is much less significant than that found in variable-area flowmeters. Mass flowmeters measure the mass or molecular flow, as opposed to the volumetric flow. One can think of the mass flowrate as the volumetric flowrate normalized to a specific temperature and pressure.

A more intuitive way to understand mass versus volumetric measurement is to imagine a gas-filled ballon. Although the volume of the balloon may be altered by squeezing it (changing the gas pressure), or by taking the balloon into a hot or cold environment (changing the gas temperature), the mass of the gas contained inside the balloon remains constant. So it is with mass flow as opposed to volumetric flow. A variable-area flowmeter measures volumetric flow. The flowrate on the flowtube reflects the volume of gas passing from the inlet to the outlet. This volume can change when gas temperatures and pressures change. Because a mass flowmeter is measuring the actual mass of gas passing form inlet to outlet, there is very little dependence on fluctuating temperatures and pressures. If you were piping an expensive gas, you would certainly want to keep track of the amount of gas used based on mass, not volumetric, flow. Makers of mass flowmeters measure their products' ability to withstand changing pressures and temperatures by giving coefficients that state the deviation of accuracy per degree or psi change. For example, typical coefficient values are 0.10% error per degree C, and 0.02% error per psi. This means that each degree or psi change away from the meter's calibration conditions will degrade the accuracy by these coefficient amounts. So, although there is a dependence on pressure and temperature for a mass meter, its is very small, if not negligible. This is the biggest advantage of a mass flowmeter. Another is that there are no moving parts to wear out. Disadvantages Aside from the fact that the gas going through the mass flowmeter should be dry and free from particulate matter, there are no major disadvantage to the mass flow technology. Mass flowmeters must be calibrated for a given gas or gas blend. Applications Applications for mass flowmeters are diverse, but here are some typical uses: Monitoring and controlling air flow during gas chromatography Monitoring CO2 for food packaging Gas delivery and control for fermenters and bioreactors Leak testing Hydrogen flow monitoring (e.g., in the utility industry) Control of methane or argon to gas burners Blending of air into dairy products Regulating CO2 injected into bottles during beverage production Nitrogen delivery and control for tank blanketing

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Coriolis flowmeters
Design overview The Coriolis flowmeter is named for the Coriolis effect, an inertial force discovered by 19th-century mathematician Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis. as a result of the Coriolis force, the acceleration of any body moving at a constant speed with respect to the Earth's surface will be deflected to the right (clockwise) in the northern hemisphere, and to the left (counter-clockwise) in the southern hemisphere. The basic design of the Coriolis meter makes use of this Coriolis force by subjecting a set of curved measuring tubes to rotary oscillations about an axis. This oscillation is normally driven by two electromagnetic coils, which also physically couple the two curved measuring tubes. As a particular fluid flows through the tubes, it will move through points of high rotational velocity, to points of lower rotational velocity. Upon approaching the tube plane in which the rotational axis is located, the rotational motion of the fluid element is decelerated at a uniform rate, until it finally reaches zero in the plane of the rotational axis. As the fluid element flows away form the rotational axis plane, toward points with higher rotational velocity, it is uniformly accelerated to increasingly higher rotational velocities. This produces a force (the Coriolis force) that causes a twisting motion withing the sensor tubes (Figure 5a). If v is the velocity of the fluid in the measuring tube, m/s, w the

instantaneous angular speed of rotation, radians/s, and m the mass of liquid in the tube section, kg, then the following applies to the Coriolis force, kg(m/s) (Note that if the flow is low, you may be using different units to represent smaller forces): FCor = -2m(w x v) (1) The design of the Coriolis flowmeter takes advantage of this force in the following manner. First, the electromagnetic drivers initiate a vibration or oscillation in the sensor tube. This oscillation occurs even when there is no fluid moving in the meter. The amplitude and frequency of this oscillation varies from manufacturer to manufacturer, but in general, the amplitude is about 3 millimeters, and the frequency is roughly 75-100 cycles/s. As the fluid element passes through the sensor tubes, the Coriolis forces come into play. The Coriolis forces cause a twisting, or distortion, in the measuring tube, which causes a vibrational phase difference between the two tubes. Some designs use only one sensor tube (figure 5b). In this case, the distortion caused by the Coriolis force in the tube is compared to the tube at "no flow" conditions. In both cases, however, a correlation to the mass flowrate is achieved, because the measured phase difference or distortion is directly proportional to the mass flowrate of the fluid. Meanwhile, temperature-compensation techniques nullify the temperature dependence of the tube oscillations, creating a high-accuracy correlation to mass flow. Advantages The biggest advantage of the Coriolis design is that it measures mass flow instead of volumetric flow. Because mass is unaffected by changes in pressure, temperature, viscosity and density, reasonable fluctuations of these parameters in the fluid line have no affect on the accuracy of the meter, which can approach 0.05% of mass flow. Coriolis meters can also determine fluid density by comparing the resonant frequency of the fluid being measured with that of water. Knowing density, the software can then convert mass to volume or percent solids. Since there are no obstructions in the fluid path, Coriolis meters have inherently low pressure drop for low-viscosity liquids. Turndown ratios (the ratio of maximum to minimum flow) of 100:1 are not uncommon. In addition, the lifetime and reliability of the Coriolis meter are high as the flow path is free of moving parts and seals. And, if installed properly, vertically installed Coriolis meters are self draining, so they will not hold fluid when the line is down. A variety of wetted parts, communications outputs and connections are available.

Disadvantages Because of their high accuracy and reliability, Corilois meters tend to be relatively expensive. This is not necessarily a disadvantage, however, if one looks at the relatively low cost of installation and ownership over time (Table 1). Because of their accuracy, Coriolis meters can help increase operating efficiency and save on production costs. The main limitation of the Coriolis meter is that pressure drop can become large as fluid viscosity increases. For viscous products, check with the manufacturer to make sure the pressure drop at you max flowrate is acceptable and within your design parameters. Applications Coriolis flowmeters are suitable for: General-purpose gas or liquid flow Custody transfer Monitoring concentration and solids content Blending ingredients and additives Conducting a primary check on secondary flowmeters Metering natural-gas consumption Monitoring such fluids as syrups, oils, suspensions and pharmaceuticals

Differential-pressure meters
Design overview

While many different types of differential-pressure flowmeters are available, this discussion will focus on one type. The technology discussed here involves the measurement of a pressure differential across a stack of laminar flow plates (Figure 6). During operation, a pressure drop is created as fluid enters through the meter's inlet. The fluid is forced to form thin laminar streams, which flow in parallel paths between the internal plates separated by spacers.
Figure 6 Using a differential-pressure flowmeter, a pressure drop is created as fluid enters the inlet. The fluid is forced to form thin laminar streams, which flow in along parallel plates. The pressure differential created by fluid drag from one end of the laminar flow plates to the other is linear and proportional to the flowrate of the liquid or the gas

Click here for large image

The pressure differential created by the fluid drag is measured by a differential-pressure sensor connected to the top of the cavity plate. The differential pressure from one end of the laminar flow plates to the other end is linear and proportional to the flowrate of the liquid or gas. What makes this technology unique is the linear relationship between differential pressure, viscosity and flow, which is given by the following equation Q = K[P1-P2)/n2] (2) where (units vary per approach):

Q = Volumetric flowrate P1 = Static pressure at the inlet P2 = Static pressure at the outlet n = Viscosity of the fluid K = Constant factor determined by the geometry of the restriction This direct relationship between pressure, viscosity and flow allows the meter to switch easily among different gases without recalibration. This is normally accomplished by programming in the various gas viscosities and allowing the user to dial in the appropriate gas, via a set of switches. Variances in temperature and pressure, which often cause errors in variable-area flowmeters, can be easily handled by adding a pressure sensor (separate form the differential-pressure sensor in the basic design) and a temperature sensor to the design, to constantly monitor fluctuations in stream pressure and temperature, and correct the flow readings to standard pressure and temperature (77F and 1 atm). This is critical for gas flowmeters, which are very sensitive to these parameters. Typical accuracy for the design is 2-3% fullscale. Advantages As with mass flowmeters, the differential-pressure meter has no moving parts to wear out. And, unlike with mass flowmeters, users of differential-pressure meters can measure different gases, such as air, hydrogen, ethane, methane, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, helium, oxygen, argon, propane and neon, by setting a switch on the unit, without the need for recalibration. For control applications, these meters are available with a built-in proportioning valve for onboard or remote control of the flowrate. With a wide variety of flow ranges and models for both gases and liquids, the differential-pressure meter is one of the most versatile designs currently on the market. Disadvantages These meters are generally reserved for use with clean gases and liquids. particulates with diameters >20-30 micrometers could get caught between the plates. Applications Viable applications include the following: Chemical applications (ratio, metering, and additive control) Pharmaceutical applications (liquid injection and batching) Research and development, and laboratory applications (gas blending, injection and aeration). Food and beverage applications (CO2 measurements, air drying, and process control)

Turbine meters
Design overview Many designs exist for turbine flowmeters, but most are a variation on the same theme. As fluid flows through the meter, a turbine rotates at a speed that is proportional to the flowrate (Figure 7). Signal generators, usually located within the rotor itself, provide magnetic pulses that are electronically sensed through a pickup coil (the yellow pickup coil shown in Figure 7) and calibrated to read flow units. In some designs, an integral display may show both the flowrate and the total flow since power-up. Turbine meters are available for both gas and liquid flow. Because of the rotating blades in a turbine meter, the output signal will be a sine wave voltage (V) of the form: V=KwsinNwt (3) where: K = The amplitude of one sine wave w = The rotational velocity of the blades N = The number of blades that pass the pickup in one full rotation t = Time
Figure 7 This cutaway view of a turbine flowmeter shows the turbines and signal generators used to produce voltage pulses that are proportional to the flowrate

Because the output signal is proportional to the rotational velocity of the turbines - which, in turn, is proportional to the liquid flow - the signal is easily scaled and calibrated to read flowrate and flow totalization. Turbine flow sensors generally have accuracies in the range of 0.25-1% fullscale. Advantages The main advantages of the turbine meter are its high accuracy (0.25% accuracy or better is not unusual) and repeatability, fast response rate (down to a few milliseconds), high pressure and temperature capabilities (i.e., up to 5,000 psi and 800F with high-temperature pick coils), and compact rugged construction. Some manufacturer's have taken turbine meter design to the next level by incorporating advanced electronics that perform temperature compensation, signal conditioning and linearization, all within a few milliseconds. This advanced technology will allow the meter to automatically compensate for viscosity and density effects. Disadvantage The disadvantage of the turbine meter is that is relatively expensive and has rotating parts that could clog from larger suspended solids in the liquid stream. And, most turbine meters need a straight section of pipe upstream from the flowmeter in order to reduce turbulent flow. This may make installation a challenge in small areas. However, some newer turbine meters reduce or eliminate the amount of straight pipe required upstream, by incorporating flow straighteners into the body of the unit. Another disadvantage in some designs is a loss of linearity at the low-flow end. Low-velocity performance and calibration can be affected by the natural change in bearing friction over time. However, today's self-lubricated retainers, low-drag fluid bearings, and jeweled-pivot bearings all help to reduce the friction points, thereby allowing for greater accuracy and repeatability in lower-flow applications. Applications Turbine flowmeters can be found in a wide variety of industries and applications: Rotometer replacement Pilot plants Research and development facilities Cooling water monitoring Inventory control Test stands Water consumption Makeup water

Oval-gear flowmeters
Design overview The design of the oval-gear flowmeter is relatively simple: oval-shaped, gear-toothed rotors rotate within a chamber of specified geometry (Figure 8). As these rotors turn, they sweep out and trap a very precise volume of fluid between the outer oval shape of the gears and the inner chamber walls, with none of the fluid actually passing trough the gear teeth. Normally, magnets are embedded in the rotors, which then can actuate a reed switch or provide a pulse output via a specialized, designated sensor (such as a Hall Effect sensor). Each pulse or switch closure then represents a precise increment of liquid volume that passes through the meter. The result is a high accuracy (usually 0.5 percent of reading) and resolution, and almost negligible effects for varying fluid viscosity, density and temperature. When sizing an oval-gear flowmeter, keep in mind that the higher the fluid viscosity, Figure 8 the more pressure will be required to "push" the fluid into the flowmeter and around During operarion, each gear rotation in the ovalthe gears. Essentially, the pressure drop is the only limiting factor when the gear meter traps a pocket application requires the metering of highly viscous liquids.

of fluid between the gear The general rule is that as long as the fluid will flow, and as long as there is enough and the outer chamber walls. A designated system pressure, the oval-gear meter will be able to measure the flow. In applications sensor counts the where the lowest possible pressure drop is required, some manufacturers can replace pockets of fluids passing from inlet to outlet, and correlates this value to a flowrate

the standard rotors with specially cut, high-viscosity rotors. The manufacturer will be able to provide a graph of flowrate versus pressure drop for various viscosities. The oval-gear flowmeter works best when there is a little backpressure in the line; a throttling valve on the meter outlet usually works just fine. The oval-gear meter is not suitable for gases, including steam and multi-phase fluids. Advantages The advantage of the oval-gear flowmeter is the it is, withing certain limits, largely independent of the fluid viscosity (users should just remain aware that higher pressures will be required to push higher-viscosity fluids through the meter). This opens up a whole range of applications, including the metering of oils, syrups and fuels. Ease of installation is another advantage of th oval design. Because no straight pipe runs or flow conditioning is required, these meters can be installed in tight areas, allowing for more flexibility in application design. Disadvantage Oval-gear meters are generally not recommended for water or water-like fluids, because the increased risk of fluid slippage between the gears and chamber walls. Fluid slippage will cause a slight degradation in accuracy, with lowviscosity fluids being more prone to degradation. As viscosity increases, the wall slippage quickly becomes minimal, and the best accuracy is realized. Since the oval-gear meter is really designed for higher-viscosity fluids, it can be argued that running water through them is not a viable application anyway. Applications Oval meters are best suited for the following applications: Measurement of net fuel use in boilers and engines Verification of proper bearing-lubricant delivery in hydraulic applications Monitoring of paper-finishing chemicals Monitoring the flow of wax finishes Monitoring syrup injection in main beverage lines Monitoring and batching volumes of thick candy coating Monitoring and automating the dispensing of cooking oils

The specifications for the six flowmeter designs discussed above will vary widely from manufacturer to manufacturer, and the performance values provided represent an average. When selecting a flowmeter for a given attribute, the engineer should consider additional attributes - including velocity-profile deviations, the effect of non-homogeneous or pulsating flow, and cavitation, all of which will affect flowmeter choice, installation and operation. While beyond the scope of this article, a thorough discussion of these parameters can be found in Ref. 5.

References
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Cole-Parmer Instrument Co., 1999-2000 catalog, Vernon Hills, IL, 1999 Hammond, Michael, "Is a Turbine Flowmeter Right for Your Application?," Flow Control, Vol. IV, No. 4, 1998, Witter Publishing Corp., N.J. Patrick, D., and Fardo, S., "Industrial Process Control Systems," Delmar Publishers, N.Y., 1997 Parr, E. A., "Industrial Control Handbook," 2nd ed., Butterworth-Heinemann, England, 1995 Miller, R. W., "Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook," 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, N.Y., 1983 Reif, David, "Matching the Flowmeter to the Job," Flow Control, Vol. III, No. 5, 1997, Witter Publishing Corp., N.J. Swearingen, C., "New Differential Pressure Flow Controllers Offer Exciting Benefits," 1997, European Process Engineer, Volume 7, No. 1, Setform Ltd, England. Swearingen, C., "High Viscosity Flowmeters: Solution to a Sticky Problem," Flow Control, Vol. IV, No. 5, 1998, Witter Publishing Corp., N.J.

9.

Gilmont, R., and Roccanova, B. "Low-flow rotameter coefficient," Instruments and Control systems, Vol. 39, p. 89, 1966.

10. Gilmont, R., and Wechsler, L., "Rotameter correlation," Measurements and Control, February 1992, p. 124.