WELDING METALLURGY

SECOND EDITION

CONTENTS
Preface xiii

I INTRODUCTION 1 Fusion Welding Processes 1.1 Overview 3 1.2 Oxyacetylene Welding 7 1.3 Shielded Metal Arc Welding 11 1.4 GasTungsten Arc Welding 13 1.5 Plasma Arc Welding 16 1.6 GasMetal Arc Welding 19 1.7 Flux-Core Arc Welding 22 1.8 Submerged Arc Welding 22 1.9 Electroslag Welding 24 1.10 Electron Beam Welding 27 1.11 Laser Beam Welding 29 References 33 Further Reading 34 Problems 34 2 Heat Flow in Welding 2.1 Heat Source 37 2.2 Analysis of Heat Flow in Welding 47 2.3 Effect of Welding Parameters 53 2.4 Weld Thermal Simulator 58 References 60 Further Reading 62 Problems 62 3 Chemical Reactions in Welding 3.1 Overview 65 3.2 GasMetal Reactions 68 3.3 SlagMetal Reactions 82 References 92

1 3

37

65

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CONTENTS

Further Reading 95 Problems 95 4 Fluid Flow and Metal Evaporation in Welding 4.1 Fluid Flow in Arcs 97 4.2 Fluid Flow in Weld Pools 103 4.3 Metal Evaporation 114 4.4 Active Flux GTAW 116 References 117 Further Reading 119 Problems 120 5 Residual Stresses, Distortion, and Fatigue 5.1 Residual Stresses 122 5.2 Distortion 126 5.3 Fatigue 131 5.4 Case Studies 137 References 140 Further Reading 141 Problems 141 122 97

II THE FUSION ZONE 6 Basic Solidication Concepts

143 145

6.1 Solute Redistribution during Solidication 145 6.2 Solidication Modes and Constitutional Supercooling 155 6.3 Microsegregation and Banding 160 6.4 Effect of Cooling Rate 163 6.5 Solidication Path 166 References 167 Further Reading 168 Problems 169 7 Weld Metal Solidication I: Grain Structure 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 Epitaxial Growth at Fusion Boundary 170 Nonepitaxial Growth at Fusion Boundary 172 Competitive Growth in Bulk Fusion Zone 174 Effect of Welding Parameters on Grain Structure 174 Weld Metal Nucleation Mechanisms 178 Grain Structure Control 187 170

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References 195 Further Reading 197 Problems 197 8 Weld Metal Solidication II: Microstructure within Grains 8.1 Solidication Modes 199 8.2 Dendrite and Cell Spacing 204 8.3 Effect of Welding Parameters 206 8.4 Rening Microstructure within Grains 209 References 213 Further Reading 213 Problems 214 9 Post-Solidication Phase Transformations 9.1 216 199

Ferrite-to-Austenite Transformation in Austenitic Stainless Steel Welds 216 9.2 Austenite-to-Ferrite Transformation in Low-Carbon, Low-Alloy Steel Welds 232 References 239 Further Reading 241 Problems 241 10 Weld Metal Chemical Inhomogeneities 10.1 Microsegregation 243 10.2 Banding 249 10.3 Inclusions and Gas Porosity 250 10.4 Inhomogeneities Near Fusion Boundary 252 10.5 Macrosegregation in Bulk Weld Metal 255 References 260 Further Reading 261 Problems 261 11 Weld Metal Solidication Cracking 11.1 Characteristics, Cause, and Testing 263 11.2 Metallurgical Factors 268 11.3 Mechanical Factors 284 11.4 Reducing Solidication Cracking 285 11.5 Case Study: Failure of a Large Exhaust Fan 295 References 296 Further Reading 299 Problems 299 263 243

CONTENTS

III THE PARTIALLY MELTED ZONE 12 Formation of the Partially Melted Zone 12.1 Evidence of Liquation 303 12.2 Liquation Mechanisms 304 12.3 Directional Solidication of Liquated Material 314 12.4 Grain Boundary Segregation 314 12.5 Grain Boundary Solidication Modes 316 12.6 Partially Melted Zone in Cast Irons 318 References 318 Problems 319 13 Difculties Associated with the Partially Melted Zone 13.1 Liquation Cracking 321 13.2 Loss of Strength and Ductility 328 13.3 Hydrogen Cracking 328 13.4 Remedies 330 References 336 Problems 338

301 303

321

IV THE HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE 14 Work-Hardened Materials 14.1 Background 343 14.2 Recrystallization and Grain Growth in Welding 347 14.3 Effect of Welding Parameters and Process 349 References 351 Further Reading 352 Problems 352 15 Precipitation-Hardening Materials I: Aluminum Alloys 15.1 Background 353 15.2 AlCuMg and AlMgSi Alloys 359 15.3 AlZnMg Alloys 367 15.4 Friction Stir Welding of Aluminum Alloys 370 References 371 Further Reading 372 Problems 372 16 Precipitation-Hardening Materials II: Nickel-Base Alloys 16.1 Background 375

341 343

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16.2 Reversion of Precipitate and Loss of Strength 379 16.3 Postweld Heat Treatment Cracking 384 References 390 Further Reading 392 Problems 392 17 Transformation-Hardening Materials: Carbon and Alloy Steels 17.1 Phase Diagram and CCT Diagrams 393 17.2 Carbon Steels 396 17.3 Low-Alloy Steels 404 17.4 Hydrogen Cracking 410 17.5 Reheat Cracking 418 17.6 Lamellar Tearing 422 17.7 Case Studies 425 References 427 Further Reading 429 Problems 430 18 Corrosion-Resistant Materials: Stainless Steels 18.1 Classication of Stainless Steels 431 18.2 Austenitic Stainless Steels 433 18.3 Ferritic Stainless Steels 446 18.4 Martensitic Stainless Steels 449 18.5 Case Study: Failure of a Pipe 451 References 452 Further Reading 453 Problems 454 431

393

Index

455