INTRODUCTION TO BOILERS

Boiler
is a metal container in which a liquid is heated and changed into a vapor. Most boilers change water into the vapor steam. Steam is used to heat buildings and processes. It changes from vapor to liquid form as it delivers heat into a room or building, giving off even more heat as a result. Some heating systems, called hydronic systems, circulate hot water rather than steam. However, the heat source in these systems is still referred to as a boiler. Steam produced in boilers is also used in steam turbines and for refining oil or drying paper.The process of heating a liquid until it reaches it's gaseous state is called evaporation. Heat is transferred from one body to another by means of (1) radiation, which is the transfer of heat from a hot body to a cold body through a conveying medium without physical contact, (2) convection, the transfer of heat by a conveying medium, such as air or water and (3) conduction, transfer of heat by actual physical contact, molecule to molecule. The heating surface is any part of the boiler metal that has hot gases of combustion on one side and water on the other. Any part of the boiler metal that actually contributes to making steam is heating surface. The amount of heating surface a boiler has is expressed in square feet. The larger the amount of heating surface a boiler has the more efficient it becomes. The heat required to change the temperature of a substance is called its sensible heat. In the teapot illustration to the left the 70 oF water contains 38 Btus and by adding 142 Btus the water is brought to boiling point. In the illustration to the left, to change the liquid (water) to its gaseous state (steam) an additional 970 Btus would be required. This quantity of heat required to change a chemical from the liquid to the gaseous state is called latent heat. The saturation temperature or boiling point is a function of pressure and rises when pressure increases. When water under pressure is heated its saturation temperature rises above 212 oF. This occurs in the boiler. In the example below the boiler is operating at a pressure of 100 psig which gives a steam temperature of 338 oF or 1185 Btus.

Sensible Heat

Latent Heat When heat is added to saturated steam out of contact with liquid, its temperature is said to be superheated. The temperature of superheated steam, expressed as degrees above saturation, is referred to as the degrees of superheat.

BOILER TYPES:
There are virtually infinite numbers of boiler designs but generally they fit into one of two categories: Firetube or as an easy way to remember "fire in tube" boilers, contain long steel tubes through which the hot gasses from a furnace pass and around which the water to be changed to steam circulates. In the fire-tube boiler, gases flow through tubes surrounded by water. This type of boiler is used in most steam locomotives, in small factories, and sometimes in heating homes. In a firetube boiler the heat (gasses) from the combustion of the fuel passes through tubes and is transferred to the water which is in a large cylindrical storage area. Common types of firetube boilers are scotch marine, firebox, HRT or horizontal return tube. Firetube boilers typically have a lower initial cost, are more fuel efficient and easier to operate but they are limited generally to capacities of 50,000pph and pressures of 250 psig.

Watertube or "water in tube" boilers in which the conditions are reversed with the water passing through the tubes and the furnace for the hot gasses is made up of the water tubes. In the water-tube boiler, gases flow over water-filled tubes. Both ends of the water tubes are connected to large containers, called drums. All high-pressure and large boilers are of the water-tube type. The small tubes in the water-tube boiler can withstand high pressure better than the large vessels of a fire-tube boiler. The steam generated in the tubes of a water-tube boiler collects at the top of a drum. It usually flows through a set of tubes called a superheater. The hot gases flow over the steam-filled tubes, increasing the temperature of the vapor. The combination of a boiler and a superheater is often called a steam generator. The more common types of watertube boilers are "D" type, "A" type, "O" type, bent tube, and cast-iron sectional. All firetube boilers and most watertube boilers are packaged boilers in that they can be transported by truck, rail or barge.

Large watertube boilers used in industries with large steam demands and in utilities must be completely assembled and constructed in the field and are called field erected boilers.

Watertube Boiler D-Type

Watertube Boiler "A Type"

Watertube Boiler "O Type" Miura Watertube Boiler

Field Erected Boiler With Superheater By B&HES at Thomaston, GA Vertical tubeless boilers are used for small loads but really do not fit into either category as they do not have tubes.

STEAM BOILER SYSTEMS:

The feedwater system provides water to the boiler and regulates it automatically to meet the demand for steam. Valves provide access for maintenance and repair. The steam system collects and controls the steam produced in the boiler. Steam is directed through piping to the point of use. Throughout the system steam pressure is regulated using valves and checked with steam pressure gauges. The steam and feedwater systems share some components. The fuel system includes all equipment used to provide fuel to generate the necessary heat. The equipment required in the fuel system depends on the type of fuel used in the system. All fuels are combustible and dangerous if necessary safety standards are not followed. Fuels commonly used are nuclear fusion, electricity, the wastes of certain processes and fossil fuels. The approximate heat value of certain fossil fuels:

Natural Gas 1,000 Btu/Cubic foot #2 Oil 142,000btu/gallon #4 oil 148,000btu/gallon

#5 oil 149,000btu/gallon #6 oil 152,000btu/gallon Coal 12,500btu/ton Wood (Dry) 8,000btu/ton Wood (Wet) 4,000btu/ton

In a fuel oil fired boiler plant, fuel oil leaves the tank through a suction line and duplex strainer traveling then to the fuel oil pump. The fuel oil is then forced through the pump and then through the discharge line. From the discharge line some fuel oil is burned and some returned to the tank through a regulating valve. In a natural gas fired plant gas is supplied at a set pressure which varies depending on the gas source. Gas systems are low pressure or high pressure. In a low pressure gas system city gas pressure is reduced from pounds to inches of pressure by passing through a gas regulator. Through the regulator gas is drawn into the burner and mixed with air supplied by a blower. This mixture is directed to the burner where it is ignited with the pilot light. In a high gas pressure system, gas passes through the regulator and gas is reduced to the proper pressure for the burner. Some boilers have combination burners which can burn gas or fuel oil or a combination of both gas and fuel oil. Coal fired boilers use mechanical feeders or stokers to feed fuel to the burner at a consistent rate. For example, in a chain grate stoker coal is fed through the hopper and regulated before passing under the ignition arch. The coal continues on a conveyor which carries the ignited coal slowly under the heating surface. Ash, slag and unburned parts or clinkers are discharged at the other side of the conveyor. The draft system regulates the flow of air to and from the burner. For fuel to burn efficiently the right amount of oxygen must be provided. Air must also be provided to direct the flow of air through the furnace to direct the gases of combustion out of the furnace to the breaching. A forced draft system uses a fan to force (or push) air through the furnace. An induced draft system uses a fan to draw (or pull) air through the furnace. A combination or balanced draft system uses forced and induced draft fans. Gases of combustion enter the stack from the breaching and are released to the atmosphere.

COMBUSTION:
Is the method of combining the fuel and air systems in a source of heat at sufficient temperature to produce steam. Combustion may be defined as the rapid chemical combination of oxygen with the combustible elements of a fuel. Only three combustible, chemical elements are of any significance: carbon, hydrogen and sulfur. The boiler combustion furnace in which the fuel burns provides a chamber in which the combustion reaction can be isolated and confined so that it can be controlled. In a scotch marine boiler it is referred to as a Morrison tube or in other boilers the firebox area. The convection surfaces are the areas to which the heat travels that is not transferred in the combustion furnace. Here additional

heat is removed. The burner is the principal device for the firing of oil and/or gas. Burners are normally located in the vertical walls of the furnace. Burners along with the furnaces in which they are installed, are designed to burn the fuel properly.

STEAM TO WATER CYCLE:

In a steam heating system steam leaves the main steam line and enters the main steam header. From the main header piping directs the steam to branch lines. Branch lines feed steam through a riser to the steam heating equipment. At the heating equipment heat is transferred to the building space. As the steam releases heat to the building space and is cools it turns back to water or condensate. The condensate is separated from the steam by a steam trap. The steam trap allows condensate to pass but not the steam. The condensate passes through the condensate return line and is collected and directed back to the boiler to repeat the steam to water process. Referring back to the teapot example, after repeated use it began to acquire a "buildup" of solids from the water. The same separation of solids in the water occurs in the boiler but since it is operating continuously and at higher temperatures this "buildup" can occur very rapidly. When this occurs the heat transfer can not be achieved as readily which requires more fuel to produce the steam. If continued unchecked damage to the metals in the boiler shell and tubes will result. Pretreatment equipment such as softeners, de-mineralizes, etc. are used to remove as much of the dissolved solids as possible before they get to the boiler. To remove the solids that continue to the boiler chemicals are added to react with the solids creating a sludge. This sludge is then periodically removed by opening valves from the bottom of the boiler and relieving it to the drain. This process is called blowdown. Waterside problems can also shorten boiler life from corrosion brought on by the oxygen content in the feedwater. Pretreatment for the removal of oxygen is performed in a deaerator but here again the removal is not complete and chemical additions are made to aid in improving the oxygen removal process. The water supplied to the boiler that is converted into steam is called feedwater. The two sources of feedwater are: (1) Condensate. or condensed steam returned from the processes and (2) Makeup water (usually city water) which must come from outside the boiler room and plant processes. For higher boiler efficiencies the feedwater can be heated, usually by economizers.

General Boiler Information

1 boiler horse power is about 42,000 BTUs of INPUT 1 pound of steam is about 1,200 BTUs of INPUT fuel, and about 1,000 BTUs at the point of use, depending on the pressure of the steam Low pressure steam is considered to be up to 15 psi; high is generally 100 psi and higher. Superheat is a term that refers to higher temperature steam, as a result of a second special steam heat exchanger in the boiler that allows steam pressure to increase, thereby taking on more BTUs (in excess of 500 psi is typical of superheat). Superheated steam is very dry steam.

Smaller boilers are generally rated in horse power; larger are generally rated in thousands of pounds of steam (500 hp and under will typically be rated in hp) Typical boiler efficiency will be in the 75 - 85% range; new highest efficiency boilers may be near 90%; newer quick heat up types of boilers with copper heat exchangers can be more efficient, especially at startup and part load than older, heavy mass cast iron boilers.

Fire Tube Boilers

In firetube boilers, the combustion gases pass inside boiler tubes, and heat is transferred to water on the shell side. Scotch marine boilers are the most common type of industrial firetube boiler. The Scotch marine boiler is an industry workhorse due to low initial cost, and advantages in efficiency and durability. Scotch marine boilers are typically cylindrical shells with horizontal tubes configured such that the exhaust gases pass through these tubes, transferring energy to boiler water on the shell side.

Scotch marine boilers contain relatively large amounts of water, which enables them to respond to load changes with relatively little change in pressure. However, since the boiler typically holds a large water mass, it requires more time to initiate steaming and more time to accommodate changes in steam pressure. Also, Scotch marine boilers generate steam on the shell side, which has a large surface area, limiting the amount of pressure they can generate. In general, Scotch marine boilers are not used where pressures above 300 psig are required. Today, the biggest firetube boilers are over 1,500 boiler horsepower (about 50,000 lbs/hr). Firetube boilers are often characterized by their number of passes, referring to the number of times the combustion (or flue) gases flow the length of the pressure vessel as they transfer heat to the water. Each pass sends the flue gases through the tubes in the opposite direction. To make another pass, the gases turn 180 degrees and pass back through the shell. The turnaround zones can be either dryback or water-back. In dryback designs, the turnaround area is refractory lined. In water-back designs, this turnaround zone is water-cooled, eliminating the need for the refractory lining.

Water Tube Boilers

In watertube boilers, boiler water passes through the tubes while the exhaust gases remain in the shell side, passing over the tube surfaces. Since tubes can typically withstand higher internal pressure than the large chamber shell in a firetube, watertube boilers are used where high steam pressures (as high as 3,000 psi) are required. Watertube boilers are also capable of high efficiencies and can generate saturated or superheated steam. The ability of watertube boilers to generate superheated steam makes these boilers particularly attractive in applications that require dry, high-pressure, high-energy steam, including steam turbine power generation. The performance characteristics of watertube boilers make them highly favorable in process industries, including chemical manufacturing, pulp and paper manufacturing, and refining. Although firetube boilers account for the majority of boiler sales in terms of units, water-tube boilers account for the majority of boiler capacity.

Steam Generators
Steam generators are like boilers in that they are fired by gas and produce steam, but they are unlike boilers in that they do not have large pressure vessels and are made of light-weight materials. The fact that they do not have pressure vessels means that in most locations they do NOT require a boiler operator (always confirm with local codes). This can be a substantial savings when there is no other reason to have an operator other than the local code requires it for a large pressure vessel. The fact that they are made out of light weight materials means they perform well at part loads and respond quickly to changes in loads. This greatly increases part load operating efficiency.

Compact and Modular Boilers

Modern materials, controls and the pursuit of ever higher energy efficiency and reduced emissions is leading to boilers that are smaller in physical size, have cleaner emissions and produce dryer steam. Materials are critical because old cast iron boilers relied on mass to prevent them from thermal shocks that could split the boiler apart. New metals reduce mass which improves thermal transfer and can handle the thermal stress of going from cold water to steam in seconds. Space is money, especially in new construction. Boilers of similar output capacity made smaller to reduce their space requirements can result in overall lower first cost of equipment plus space. Boilers have a certain efficiency curve that tends to result in the boiler having the highest efficiency at full-fire. As the boiler is 'turned-down' to run at less than 100% capacity, efficiency typically drops. To counter this situation, a modular boiler bank of 3 or more boilers with a programmed controller can improve operational efficiency over a single boiler operating in a turndown mode, and provides a certain amount of redundancy for back-up.

Tubeless and Condensing Boilers

High energy prices along with improved material and combustion technology is resulting in a new generation of high efficiency gas boilers. Traditional boilers are designed to PREVENT condensation because it is corrosive to boiler components and the wide variations in temperatures cause problems with thermal shock. However, without condensation, boilers can not be higher than about 85% efficient. Boilers that are designed for condensation and use advanced controls to squeeze every possible BTU from the combustion process are able to achieve efficiencies in the high 90's. There is a first-cost premium, but when energy prices are high, paybacks are more acceptable. "Tubeless" Boilers use tubing coils instead of rigid tubes. "Direct Contact" water heaters have no tubes, tubing or coils; they have heat transfer media such as spheres or cylinders and allow flue gases to come in direct contact with the water.

Steam Information
Steam is an invisible gas that's generated by heating water to a temperature that brings it to the boiling point. When this happens, water changes its physical state and vaporizes, turning from a liquid into a gas. Conversely, when heat energy is removed from steam, it loses its ability to retain a gaseous state and condenses back into a liquid. The resulting liquid is called condensate. The temperature at which condensation takes place is known as the dew point. When water is heated at atmospheric pressure, its temperature rises until it reaches 212F (100C), the highest temperature at which water can exist at this pressure. Additional heat does not raise the temperature, but converts the water to steam. One pound of water takes 1 BTU per Degree of Temperature rise up to 212F; to form steam, an additional 970 BTUs is required for the "Latent Heat of Vaporization". Therefore, steam has (970 + (212 - Condensate Temperature)) BTUs per pound. EXAMPLE: If the condensate temperature is 160F, (970 + (212 - 160)) = 1,022 BTUs per pound. This clearly shows why steam has more energy content than hot water. NOTE: These are BTUs delivered to the water; efficiency must also be factored in to determine INPUT BTU requirements.

Superheat
Superheat refers to the process of increasing the temperature of steam above about 400F and 100 psi to produce a very "dry" steam with absolutely no water vapor. This feature is most common in very large power plant boilers of watertube construction. An additional heat exchanger capable of the high temperatures and pressures is required.

At least one company promotes a "direct fired" superheater, that could have some advantages for facilities with smaller sized boilers that need higher temperatures and pressures, but do not want to invest in a new boiler or use a Thermal Fluid system. According to their web site, the Cannon Superheater can be used on new boilers and retrofit installations. The Cannon Superheater can be used on watertube or firetube boilers in the 25 HP to 1,000 HP range. For more information, see www.cannonboilerworks.com.

Boiler Stack Economizer

Flue gases from large boilers are typically 450 - 650F. Stack Economizers recover some of this heat for pre-heating water. The water is most often used for boiler make-up water or some other need that coincides with boiler operation. Stack Economizers should be considered as an efficiency measure when large amounts of make-up water are used (ie: not all condensate is returned to the boiler or large amounts of live steam are used in the process so there is no condensate to return.) The savings potential is based on the existing stack temperature, the volume of make-up water needed, and the hours of operation. Economizers are available in a wide range of sizes, from small coil-like units to very large waste heat recovery boilers.

Boiler Flue Condensers

There is a class of economizers that are designed to condense the flue gases and/or have the water in direct contact with flue gases. I have called them 'Flue Gas Condensers'. Stack Economizers and Condensers should be considered as an efficiency measure when large amounts of make-up water are used (ie: not all condensate is returned to the boiler or large amounts of live steam is used in the process so there is no condensate to return) or there is a simultaneous need for large volumes of hot water. The application difference between an economizer and condenser is that economizers are primarily used to heat a smaller volume of water to a high temperature for boiler feed water, and condenser units heat a larger volume of water to a lower temperature. Condensers can be more efficient because they can have a lower outlet exhaust temperature and take advantage of the energy in condensed flue gasses (the Latent Heat of Vaporization).

Boiler Water Treatment

Origin of the Problem

The most common source of corrosion in boiler systems is dissolved gas: oxygen, carbon dioxide and ammonia. Of these, oxygen is the most aggressive. The importance of eliminating oxygen as a source of pitting and iron deposition cannot be over-emphasized. Even small concentrations of this gas can cause serious corrosion problems. Makeup water introduces appreciable amounts of oxygen into the system. Oxygen can also enter the feed water system from the condensate return system. Possible return line sources are direct air-leakage on the suction side of pumps, systems under vacuum, the breathing action of closed condensate receiving tanks, open condensate receiving tanks and leakage of nondeaerated water used for condensate pump seal and/or quench water. With all of these sources, good housekeeping is an essential part of the preventive program. One of the most serious aspects of oxygen corrosion is that it occurs as pitting. This type of corrosion can produce failures even though only a relatively small amount of metal has been lost and the overall corrosion rate is relatively low. The degree of oxygen attack depends on the concentration of dissolved oxygen, the pH and the temperature of the water. The influence of temperature on the corrosivity of dissolved oxygen is particularly important in closed heaters and economizers where the water temperature increases rapidly. Elevated temperature in itself does not cause corrosion. Small concentrations of oxygen at elevated temperatures do cause severe problems. This temperature rise provides the driving force that accelerates the reaction so that even small quantities of dissolved oxygen can cause serious corrosion. The Corrosion Process Localized attack on metal can result in a forced shutdown. The prevention of a forced shutdown is the true aim of corrosion control. Because boiler systems are constructed primarily of carbon steel and the heat transfer medium is water, the potential for corrosion is high. Iron is carried into the boiler in various forms of chemical composition and physical state. Most of the iron found in the boiler enters as iron oxide or hydroxide. Any soluble iron in the feed water is converted to the insoluble hydroxide when exposed to the high alkalinity and temperature in the boiler. These iron compounds are divided roughly into two types, red iron oxide (Fe2O3) and black magnetic oxide (Fe3O4). The red oxide (hematite) is formed under oxidizing conditions that exist, for example, in the condensate system or in a boiler that is out of service. The black oxides (magnetite) are formed under reducing conditions that typically exist in an operating boiler. External Treatment External treatment, as the term is applied to water prepared for use as boiler feed water, usually refers to the chemical and mechanical treatment of the water source. The goal is to improve the quality of this source prior to its use as boiler feed water, external to the operating boiler itself. Such external treatment normally includes:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Clarification Filtration Softening Dealkalization Demineralization Deaeration Heating

Any or all of these approaches can be used in feed water or boiler water preparation. Internal Treatment Even after the best and most appropriate external treatment of the water source, boiler feed water (including return condensate) still contains impurities that could adversely affect boiler operation. Internal boiler water treatment is then applied to minimize the potential problems and to avoid any catastrophic failure, regardless of external treatment malfunction. Feed Water Preparation The basic assumption with regard to the quality of feed water is that calcium and magnesium hardness, migratory iron, migratory copper, colloidal silica and other contaminants have been reduced to a minimum, consistent with boiler design and operation parameters. Once feed water quality has been optimized with regard to soluble and particulate contaminants, the next problem is corrosive gases. Dissolved oxygen and dissolved carbon dioxide are among the principal causes of corrosion in the boiler and pre-boiler systems. The deposition of these metallic oxides in the boiler is frequently more troublesome than the actual damage caused by the corrosion. Deposition is not only harmful in itself, but it offers an opening for further corrosion mechanisms as well. Contaminant products in the feed water cycle up and concentrate in the boiler. As a result, deposition takes place on internal surfaces, particularly in high heat transfer areas, where it can be least tolerated. Metallic deposits act as insulators, which can cause local overheating and failure. Deposits can also restrict boiler water circulation. Reduced circulation can contribute to overheating, film boiling and accelerated deposition. The best way to start to control pre-boiler corrosion and ultimate deposition in the boiler is to eliminate the contaminants from the feed water. Consequently, this section deals principally with the removal of oxygen, the impact of trace amounts of contaminants remaining in the feed water, and heat exchange impact. Feed water is defined as follows:

Feed water (FW) = Makeup water (MW) + Return condensate (RC) The above equation is a mass balance (pounds or kilograms). Deaeration (Mechanical and Chemical) Mechanical and chemical deaeration is an integral part of modern boiler water protection and control. Deaeration, coupled with other aspects of external treatment, provides the best and highest quality feed water for boiler use. Simply speaking, the purposes of deaeration are: 1. To remove oxygen, carbon dioxide and other noncondensable gases from feed water 2. To heat the incoming makeup water and return condensate to an optimum temp 3. Minimizing solubility of the undesirable gases 4. Providing the highest temperature water for injection to the boiler

Deaerators
Mechanical deaeration is the first step in eliminating oxygen and other corrosive gases from the feed water. Free carbon dioxide is also removed by deaeration, while combined carbon dioxide is released with the steam in the boiler and subsequently dissolves in the condensate. This can cause additional corrosion problems. Because dissolved oxygen is a constant threat to boiler tube integrity, our discussion on the deaerator will be aimed at reducing the oxygen content of the feed water. The two major types of deaerators are the tray type and the spray type. In both cases, the major portion of gas removal is accomplished by spraying cold makeup water into a steam environment.

Tray Type Deaerating Heaters Tray-type deaerating heaters release dissolved gases in the incoming water by reducing it to a fine spray as it cascades over several rows of trays. The steam that makes intimate contact with the water droplets then scrubs the dissolved gases by its counter-current flow. The steam heats the water to within 3-5 F of the steam saturation temperature and it should remove all but

the very last traces of oxygen. The deaerated water then falls to the storage space below, where a steam blanket protects it from recontamination. Nozzles and trays should be inspected regularly to insure that they are free of deposits and are in their proper position. Spray-Type Deaerating Heaters Spray-type deaerating heaters work on the same general philosophy as the tray-type, but differ in their operation. Spring-loaded nozzles located in the top of the unit spray the water into a steam atmosphere that heats it. Simply stated, the steam heats the water, and at the elevated temperature the solubility of oxygen is extremely low and most of the dissolved gases are removed from the system by venting. The spray will reduce the dissolved oxygen content to 20-50 ppb, while the scrubber or trays further reduce the oxygen content to approximately 7 ppb or less. During normal operation, the vent valve must be open to maintain a continuous plume of vented vapors and steam at least 18 inches long. If this valve is throttled too much, air and nonconclensable gases will accumulate in the deaerator. This is known as air blanketing and can be remedied by increasing the vent rate. For optimum oxygen removal, the water in the storage section must be heated to within 5 F of the temperature of the steam at saturation conditions. From inlet to outlet, the water is deaerated in less than 10 seconds.

Deaerators and Economizers Where economizers are installed, good deaerating heater operation is essential. Because oxygen pitting is the most common cause of economizer tube failure, this vital part of the boiler must be protected with an oxygen scavenger, usually catalyzed sodium sulfite. In order to insure complete corrosion protection of the economizer, it is common practice to maintain a sulfite residual of 510 ppm in the feed water and, if necessary, feed sufficient caustic soda or neutralizing amine to increase the feed water pH to between 8.0 and 9.0. Below 900 psi excess sulfite (up to 200 ppm) in the boiler will not be harmful. To maintain blowdown rates, the conductivity can then be raised to compensate for the extra solids due to the presence of the higher level of sulfite in the boiler water. This added consideration (in protecting the economizer) is aimed at preventing a pitting failure. Make the application of an oxygen scavenger, such as catalyzed sulfite, a standard recommendation in all of your boiler treatment programs.

Treatment The foregoing discussion shows the importance of proper deaeration of boiler feed water in order to prevent oxygen corrosion. Complete oxygen removal cannot be attained by mechanical deaeration alone. Equipment manufacturers state that a properly operated deaerating heater can mechanically reduce the dissolved oxygen concentrations in the feed water to 0.005 cc per liter (7 ppb) and 0 free carbon dioxide. Typically, plant oxygen levels vary from 3 to 50 ppb. Traces of dissolved oxygen remaining in the feed water can then be chemically removed with the oxygen scavenger.

Blowdown Control
The main purpose of blowdown is to maintain the solids content of the boiler water within prescribed limits. This would be under normal steaming conditions. However, in the event contamination is introduced in the boiler, high continuous and manual blowdown rates are used to reduce the contamination as quickly as possible. Because each boiler and plant operation is different, maximum levels should be determined on an individual basis. Bottom Blowdown By definition, bottom blowdown is intermittent and designed to remove sludge from the areas of the boiler where it settles. The frequency of bottom blowdown is a function of experience and plant operation. Bottom blowdown can be accomplished manually or electronically using automatic blowdown controllers. Continuous Blowdown Frequently used in conjunction with manual blowdown, continuous blowdown constantly removes concentrated water from the boiler. By design, it is in the area of highest boiler water concentration. This point is determined by the design of the boiler and is generally the area of greatest steam release. Continuous blowdown allows for excellent control over boiler water solids. In addition, it can remove significant levels of suspended solids. Another advantage is that the continuous blowdown can be passed through heat recovery equipment.

Deaerator More
Introduction
Removing dissolved oxygen from boiler feed water is absolutely necessary to protect your boiler equipment from severe corrosion. But the make-up water necessary in any boiler system inevitably contains dissolved oxygen. Oxygen can sometimes enter condensate systems as well. A good deaerator is essential to trouble-free boiler operation.

Operation

Above is a typical "older-style" boiler feed water deaerator. You'll see why I call it "older" in a moment. The theory here is relatively simple. Treated water containing dissolved oxygen is fed onto a contacting device where the water can be heated and contacted with steam which is also fed to the vessel. The steam heats the incoming treated water to around 250 F (120 C) and allows oxygen to escape (along with any small amount of uncondensed steam) to the atmosphere. Notice that the returning condensate is NOT contacted with the steam in this system. Some systems feed the treated water and condensate together to ensure a very low oxygen content. Other systems do not bother as the returning condensate is expected to already have a low oxygen content. You'll see that newer systems are designed to treat both sources in most cases.

A next generation deaerator system from Hurst Boiler, called the Oxy-Miser, utilizes a scrubbing section to contact oxygen-rich feedwater with steam rather than the more traditional tray arrangement.

In this design, both the treated boiler feed water and the condensate return are sent through the scrubbing section of the deaerator. The Oxy-Miser system is available in capacities ranging from 5,000 to 200,000 lb/h (2300 to 91000 kg/h).

Internal Gear. Internal gear pumps (Figure 2) carry fluid between the gear teeth from the inlet to outlet ports. The outer gear (rotor) drives the inner or idler gear on a stationary pin. The gears create voids as they come out of mesh and liquid flows into the cavities. As the gears come back into mesh, the volume is reduced and the liquid is forced out of the discharge port. The crescent prevents liquid from flowing backwards from the outlet to the inlet port. External Gear. External gear pumps (Figure 3) also use gears which come in and out of mesh. As the teeth come out of mesh, liquid flows into the pump and is carried between the teeth and the casing to the discharge side of the pump. The teeth come back into mesh and the liquid is forced out the discharge port. External gear pumps rotate two identical gears against each other. Both gears are on a shaft with bearings on either side of the gears.

Figure 2

Figure 3

Vane. The vanes - blades, buckets, rollers, or slippers - work with a cam to draw fluid into and force it out of the pump chamber. The vanes may be in either the rotor or stator. The vane-in rotor pumps may be made with constant or variable displacement pumping elements. Figure 4 shows a sliding vane pump. Flexible Member. This principle is similar to the Vane principle except the vanes flex rather than slide. The fluid pumping and sealing action depends on the elasticity of the flexible members. The flexible members may be a tube, a vane, or a liner. Figure 5 shows a flexible vane pump.

Figure 4

Figure 5

Lobe. Fluid is carried between the rotor teeth and the pumping chamber. The rotor surfaces create continuous sealing. Both gears are driven and are synchronized by timing gears. Rotors include biwing, tri-lobe, and multi-lobe configurations. Figure 6 is a tri-lobe pump.
Figure 6

Circumferential Piston. Fluid is carried from inlet to outlet in spaces between piston surfaces. Rotors must be timed by separate means, and each rotor may have one or more piston elements. See Figure 7.
Figure 7

Screw. Screw pumps carry fluid in the spaces between the screw threads. The fluid is displaced axially as the screws mesh. Single screw pumps (Figure 8) are commonly called progressive cavity pumps. They have a rotor with external threads and a stator with internal threads. The rotor threads are eccentric to the axis of rotation. Multiple screw pumps have multiple external screw threads. These pumps may be timed or untimed. Figure 9 shows a three-screw pump.
Figure 9

Figure 8