Lecture 2: The Celtic Iron Age and Roman Britain

Who were the Celts? Celts is the conventional modern term for the Iron Age European peoples who were referred to by ancient Greek and Roman writers by names like Keltoi, Galatai, Celti etc. Ancient historians recorded the Celts migrations from a homeland north of the Alps: they invaded Italy at the end of the 5th century BC and Greece in the 3rd century, and a Celtic colony settled as far east as the area of Ankara in modern Turkey. In the West, the Romans encountered them in Gaul (modern France). Whether or not these people themselves would have recognized a common identity, archaeology shows that they had much in common in material culture, particularly the distinctive artistic style known as La Tne, and there is evidence that they spoke closely related languages belonging to a branch of the Indo-European language family that linguists nowadays call Celtic. No ancient writer actually referred to any of the peoples of the British Isles as Celts. However the evidence of the earliest place names and personal names recorded by Roman writers shows that Celtic languages were certainly spoken in Britain and Ireland in the Iron Age (and may have been spoken earlier) and there is plenty of evidence of Celtic material culture in this period. This is probably the result of cultural influence through trade rather than a Celtic invasion or mass migrationthough there is evidence that some continental tribes did migrate to Britain, particularly the Belgae who settled in the south of England in the 1st century BC. Celtic life The continental Celtic way of lifeat least that of the warrior elitewas described in detail by Greek and Roman writers, often using information from the 1st century BC Greek writer Posidonius, who had travelled among the Celts in Gaul. They are presented as tall, blond warriors, boastful and impetuous. They were eager to show their courage in battle, where they rode in chariots and sometimes fought naked. They cut off the heads of their enemies and kept them in their homes. They enjoyed extravagant feasts, with large quantities of meat and drink (imported wine for the rich, honeyed beer for the rest), and which often ended in fighting. They wore brightly coloured clothes and gold jewellery, and stiffened their hair with lime. (Unfortunately the writers have much less to say about the lives of Celtic women.) Their philosophers and theologians were called Druids. According to Julius Caesar, Pliny, and other writers, they trained for many years and learned many verses by heart. They would not put their doctrines in writing, believed

in life after death, presided at sacrifices (including human), and venerated mistletoe and oak. Associated with the Druids were the Bards, poets who composed poems of praise and satire, and were highly respected. The ancient writers say much less about the people of the British Isles, but a unique insider perspective on Celtic culture comes from the early literature of Ireland. Tales of warrior heroes like C Chulainn were first written down around the 8th century AD, but seem to derive from oral traditions that were already several centuries old. The lifestyle presented in the tales is similar in many ways to that described on the continent by Posidonius. Early Irish laws, written down from about the 8th century, add to the picture. (In fact the warrior elite portrayed by the ancient writers and in the Irish tales were only a small minority of Iron Age society. Most people were farmers.) Celtic art The artistic style associated with the Celts is known as La Tne, after the place in Switzerland where it was first discovered. It is characterized by curving and spiralling lines and forms, generally non-representational, but also including animals and human faces. Richly decorated objects in this style include torques open rings of twisted metal used as arm or neck ornaments. Celtic languages The Celtic language of Britain developed into modern Welsh (about 600,000 speakers), Cornish (spoken as a second language by up to 2,000 people in Cornwall), and Breton (in Brittany in NW France, perhaps 300,000 speakers). That of Ireland developed into modern Irish (spoken by up to 70,000 people as a first language and known by many more as a second language), Scottish Gaelic (about 60,000 speakers), and Manx (in the Isle of Man, currently reviving after nearly disappearing in the 20th century). Nowadays Irish is the first official language of the Republic of Ireland and an official language of the EU. Within the UK, Welsh has official status equal to English in Wales, and Irish and Scottish Gaelic are officially recognized and promoted in Northern Ireland and Scotland respectively. The first historic record of Britain and Ireland In the 4th century BC, Pytheas, a Greek from Marseille, sailed round Britain, and wrote an account of his journey which is now known only from quotations by other writers. He commented on the tin trade in the south west of Britain, and on agricultural practices. He probably called the British Isles Prettanike, or islands of the Pretani, perhaps meaning painted people. Earlier names for Great Britain and Ireland used by some Greek writers are Albion and Ierne.

English 1A British Culture and Civilization J. Brown 2010-2011

Julius Caesars invasion Julius Caesar, who had conquered the Celtic tribes of Gaul, invaded Britain twice, in 55 and 54 BC. On the second occasion he defeated Cassivellaunus, a British king ruling to the north of London, but he returned to the continent without attempting a permanent conquest. For nearly a hundred years, southern British tribes continued to develop trade and political links with Rome. A number of names of leaders of southern British tribes are known from coins and from Roman records, notably Cunobelinus, (Shakespeares Cymbeline). According to Strabo, Britain exported grain, cattle, gold, silver, iron, hides, slaves and dogs, and imported luxury goods like ivory and amber jewellery and glass. The Roman conquest of Britain The next Roman invasion took place in 43 AD under the emperor Claudius. Four legions commanded by Aulus Plautius landed on the south-east coast, and quickly advanced to take Camulodunum (Colchester), the capital of the Catuvellauni. The Roman forces then spread out to the north and west, and within a few years had taken control of most of the lowland part of Britain south and east of the Humber and Severn estuaries. A network of roads was built to enable rapid communication across this area. A colony of army veterans was established at Colchester and a legionary fortress at Lindum Colonia (Lincoln). Resistance led by Cunobelinuss son Caratacus was finally defeated in 51, when Caratacus was handed over to the Romans by Cartimandua, queen of the Brigantes, a northern tribe who had made peace with the Romans. Boudica In 60, while the governor Suetonius Paulinus was attacking Anglesey (North Wales), a centre of the druids and a haven for rebels against Roman authority, Boudicca, queen of the Iceni, rebelled on the other side of the country. Her army destroyed the colony at Colchester and Londinium (London), the main trading centre, before the Romans defeated them at an unknown location. Agricola The greatest expansion of Roman power in Britain was the work of Julius Agricola, governor from 77-84, who consolidated Roman control in Wales, and then advanced into the north of England and Scotland. He defeated the Caledonians somewhere in northern Scotland, and established a new military frontier line north of the river Tay. His activities are known in detail because his life story was written by his son-in-law, the historian Tacitus.

According to Tacitus, Agricola also improved the administration of Roman Britain, including a clampdown on corruption, and encouraged the cultural assimilation of British elites to the Roman way of life. Tribal kings in the south were now living in Roman-style villas, and the tribal centres of earlier times were developing into planned towns, with impressive public buildings (including baths, which Tacitus mentions as an attraction for the Romanized British notably at Aquae Sulis, the modern town of Bath in southwest England). The walls After Agricola, forces were diverted from Britain to the Danube, and the northern frontier was gradually moved south (particularly around 100 AD under Trajan). A large collection of letters written on wooden tablets dating from this period has been discovered at the fort of Vindolanda in the north of England, offering a rare glimpse of everyday life on the Roman frontier. From 122 to 133, the emperor Hadrian had a 117 km stone wall built across the north of England. Its garrison came from many parts of the empire, including a cohort of Dacians at the fort of Camboglanna (Birdoswald). For about 20 years from 142, a new frontier was established further north at the Antonine Wall (60 km, made of turf), but otherwise Hadrians Wall, rebuilt by the emperor Septimius Severus after a temporary breakdown in Roman control in 197, remained the permanent northern frontier of the Roman empire. Later Roman Britain From the 3rd century, naval defences were developed to protect southern Britain from Saxon raiders from northern Germany. In 306, the future emperor Constantine began his campaign for power in Britain. During the first half of the 4th century, Roman Britain seems to have been peaceful and prosperous. Resources were now invested more in large villas in the country than in civic buildings in the towns. There is increasing evidence of Christianity, which became the official religion of the Empire under Constantine. In 367, Britain suffered serious attacks by Picts from the north, Scots from Ireland, and Saxons. Order was restored by Count Theodosius, who built new defences on the coast and restored Hadrians wall again. The end of Roman Britain In 407, Constantine III took the army from Britain to Gaul in his bid to become emperor, leaving Britain undefended. In 410 the emperor Honorius, under attack from the Visigoths, wrote to the civitates (local administrations) of Britain authorizing them to look after themselves. From this point onwards, Britain was effectively no longer part of the Roman empire.

English 1A British Culture and Civilization J. Brown 2010-2011