Centuries before 1000 BCE = Medes & Persians migrated from central Asia to Persia, where they lived

in loose subjection to Babylonian & Assyrian empires o Medes & Persians spoke Indo-European; movements were a part of larger IndoEuropean migrations o Medes & Persians were ppls of considerable military power Cyrus the Achaemenid (reigned 558530 BCE) launched Persians imperial venture Cyrus became king of Persian tribes, which he ruled from his mountain fortress at Pasargadae o initiated rebellion against Median overload, who he crushed in 3 yrs o brought all of Iran under his control; began to look for opportunities to expand his influence o conquered kingdom of Lydia in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) o campaigned in central Asia & Bactria (modern Afghanistan) o seized Babylonia Cambyses (reigned 530522 BCE) conquered Egypt in 525 BCE & brought its wealth into Persian hands Darius (reigned 521486 BCE), younger kinsman of Cyrus, extended empire both east & west o Greatest of Achaemenid emperors o capturing Thrace, Macedonia, & western coast of Black Sea in southeastern Europe o Population 35 million => largest empire world had yet seen o Governing empire harder than conquering it Achaemenid Bureaucracy Achaemenid rulers presided over more than 70 distinct ethnic groups Diff languages, religions, regions, & cultural traditions To maintain empire, Achaemenids needed to establish lines of communication w/ all parts of their realm & design institutions that would enable them to tax & administer their territories o started to build new capital of astonishing magnificence at Persepolis near Pasargadae Government of Achaemenid empire depended on finely tuned balance btwn central initiative & local administration o Appointed governors to serve as agents Darius divided realm in 23 satrapiesadministrative & taxation districts governed by satraps Achaemenids didnt push direct rule onto subjects: most satraps were Persians, but the Achaemenids recruited local officials to fill almost all administrative posts below the level of the satrap Spy Network Rulers created new category of officials = eyes and ears of the king Agents traveled throughout empire w/ own military forces conducting surprise audits of accounts & procedures in provinces & collecting intelligence reports Regularizing tax levies & standardizing laws o Followed example of Lydian rulers & issued standardized coins to expedite payment of taxes => fostered trade throughout empire o Directed legal experts to study & codify laws of subject ppls, modifying them when necessary to harmonized them w/ legal principles observed in empire as whole

Built roads = Persian Royal Road (paved w/ stone) from Aegean port of Ephesus to Sardis in Anatolia, thru Mesopotamia along Tigris River, to Susa in Iran, w/ extension to Pasargadae & Persepolis Xerxes (reigned 486465 BCE), Darius successor o Wasnt tolerant o Tried to impose his values on conquered lands = policy caused lots of ill will, esp. in Mesopotamia & Egypt o Successfully repressed rebellions Persian Wars o Persian army had to deal w/ long & fragile lines of supply & hostile environment in Greece Suffered at battle of Marathon = 490 BCE Persian & Greek standoff ended w/ rise of Alexander the Great o Alexander invaded Persia w/ army of 48,000 Macedonians Carried heavier arms & employed more sophisticated military tactics than opponents o shattered Achaemenid forces at battle of Gaugamela, & w/in a year the empire founded by Cyrus dissolved o made himself ruler o Portrayed himself as successor of Achaemenids who observed precedents & deserved their honors Seleucids Persia victor = Seleucus, formerly commander of elite guard corps in Alexanders army o faced opposition from native Persians & especially their ruling classes o Satraps often revolted against Seleucid rule Parthians Parthians established themselves as lords of a powerful empire based in Iran that they extended to wealthy Mesopotamia o Retained customs & traditions of nomadic ppls from steppes of central Asia o No centralized gov. => organized politically thru federation of leaders who met in councils and jointly determined policy for all allied groups o Skillful warriors o Parthian satrap revolted against Seleucid overlord in 238 BCE & during the following decades his successors gradually enlarged their holdings Mithradates I, the Parthians greatest conqueror, came to the throne about 171 BCE & transformed his state into mighty empire Parthians portrayed themselves as enemies of foreign Seleucids, as restorers of rule in Persian tradition o Largely followed example of Achaemenids in structuring empire: governed thru satraps, employed Achaemenids techniques of administration & taxation, & built capital city at Ctesiphon on Euphrates River o internal rebellion brought it down Imperial rule continued under Sasanids, who came from Persia & claimed direct descent from Achaemenids

Shapur I (239272 CE), the Sasanids stabilized their western frontier & created series of buffer states btwn themselves & Roman empire o Shapur defeated several Roman armies o After Shapur, the Sasanids didnt expand militarily, but entered into standoff relationship w/ Kushan empire in east & Roman & Byzantine empires in west Had right to share in income that temples generated from their agricultural operations & from craft industries such as textile production that the temples organized o Large class of slaves worked in cities & countryside o Two main routes to pass into slavery: Prisoners of war Conquests Civilians that resist advance or rebelled against imperial authorities Debt accumulators Agriculture was economic foundation of classical Persian society Agriculture was economic foundation of Persian empires, but the empires had the effect of encouraging rapid economic development and trade o gold, ivory, textiles spices, grain

Persians earliest religion closely resembled that of Aryans of India o Buddhism, Christianity, & Manichaeismalso found numerous converts in Persian empire Zarathustra became convinced that supreme god Ahura Mazda (the wise lord) chose him to serve as his prophet & spread his message Zarathustras doctrine has also proven to be somewhat elusive for modern analysis Many of earliest Zoroastrian teachings have perished because priests (magi) at first transmitted them orally o Recognized Ahura Mazda as supreme deity, an eternal and beneficent spirit, and creator of all good things => conflicted w/ Angra Mainyu (destructive spirit or hostile spirit) o human souls would undergo judgment & would experience rewards or punishments according to holiness of their thoughts, words, & deeds o Considered material world a blessing that reflected benevolent nature of Ahura Mazda o Moral teachings allowed human beings to enjoy world & its fruits