Council for Research in Music Education

The Power of Contingent Music for Infant Learning Author(s): Jayne M. Standley Reviewed work(s): Source: Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, No. 149, Pioneering Inquiry in the New Century: Exemplars of Music Research, Part II (Spring, 2001), pp. 65-71 Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of the Council for Research in Music Education Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40319091 . Accessed: 22/03/2012 17:37
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Bulletin theCouncil forResearchin Music Education of

2001, No. 149 Spring,

Music forInfant The PowerofContingent Learning

Jayne M. Standley Florida State University Tallahassee, FL

Abstract
For thelast 10 years we have been aware thatinfant learningbeginsin the womb. Only shownthatlearning birth continues an incredibly rateand that at has from fast recently research millionsof neurologicalconnections thenewborn making is everyhour. It is evidentthatthis on relationships by earlylearningreliesprimarily cause-effect experienced theinfant frommoment moment. fact,morethan20 yearsago DeCasper and Carstens(1981) showedthatthe In to to mother's voicepresented infants enabled2-day contingent upona particularsucking pattern whenthemother's to learn and producetherequired old infants quickly pattern.Additionally, and the neverlearned voice wasfirst presented noncontingently, thenlatercontingently, infants therequired task. rfor Music has been shownto be a powerful reinforce people ofall ages, including infants. Thereis now an identifiable bodyof researchusingmusicin contingent relationships infant for and analyzes thatliterature discusses thepotential and power of learning. Thispaper reviews musicin shapingearlyinfant behavior.

Introduction
has betweenmusic Recentmedia attention focusedon the assumedconnection in has This intense andinfant learning. publicity resulted widespread publicbeliefthat the to an I.Q. score. Unfortunately, subsequent listening musicwill improve infant's whicharose from attention studies on connection thisassumption, to actualresearch and withkindergarten elementary (Rauscher,1999) is nebulousat best. aged children the and Whatwe do knowaboutneurological growth development during infant years is the is exciting.At term birth, neonate'sneurological development stillveryimmato evolves fromthe opportunity acquire information ture. Intelligence using one's stimulation The and innate sound,movement, (touch, capability. brainrequires genetic four to change:in the hearing) developand willgo through periodsofmajorstructural of the to womb,at birth, ages 4-10 years,and during remainder life. Frombirth age 3 is a criticalphase whenmostof theneurological "wiring"takesplace. Brain years seek a new purpose lose therace will die off, and cells compete function thosethat for thatthegains or simplyfailto connect(Kotulak,1993). Generalopinionis hopeful due and evidencedinkindergarten elementary maybegin aged children to musicstudy are to in in muchearlier life,perhaps thewomb. Music researchers beginning explore in trimester thewomb(Wilkin,1995). the of recognition musicexposurefrom third a that documents relationship betweeninfant music is research Whilethere little thatdemonstrates infants listencareand I.Q., thereis research listening subsequent for memory musical long-term fullyto music (de l'Etoile, 2001) and thatinfant and is Loman,& Robertson, 2000). Infants (Saffran, experiences excellent contextual of as to demonstrate ability matchvocal pitches earlyas 3 months age (Wendrich, the melodies as early as 6 months 1981) and can recognize changes in transformed (Summers,1984). other of of are benefits Beside thebeginning acquisition musiccapabilities, there For at leasta decade,we have been aware musicin theearlystagesof development?

65

66

The Power of Contingent Music forInfant Learning

has thatinfant trimester thewomb. Only recently rein beginsin thethird learning fast the searchshownthat from continues an incredibly rateand that at birth learning newborn making is of connections millions neurological everyhour. It is also evident that prolific this on (or relationships earlylearning periodreliesprimarily cause-effect from moment moment. to contingencies) experienced theinfant by muIfcause-effect theprimary is for whatrolemight modeof learning neonates, sic play? Is music's attraction behavior? powerful earlyinfant enoughto reinforce in Music as a contingency subjectsof all age rangeswas thoroughly for investigated a in wereincluded, notisolated, but studies 1996). Infant prior meta-analysis (Standley, thisstudywhichevaluated208 variablesderivedfrom studies. Resultsforeach 98 variablewere converted effect formulae and to sizes (ES) via statistical dependent revealedthattheoverallbenefits attributable contingent to music were almostthree standard deviationsgreater thancontrol/baseline conditions (5=2.90). Contingent nonmusicwas moreeffective changing in desiredbehaviorsthaneither contingent music stimuli continuous or music. Pairingotherstimuli such as food,approval,or visual stimulation withthemusicactuallydecreaseditseffectiveness a reinforcer. as Music also had theuniqueability function to for as simultaneously a reinforcer behaviorchangewhileincreasing aboutthesubject of matter music.Additionally, knowledge studiesof musicas reinforcement specificacademic gains demonstrated for generalized benefit other to not academicand social behaviors actually consequated. If musicis a highly effective reinforcer how soon are infants awareof, generally, and capable of responding it in a learningsituation? Butterfield Siperstein to and to an music. They (1972) werethefirst document earlyinfant responseto contingent demonstrated music was an effective that for reinforcer increasing suckingrateof 2 infants determined infants and that discriminated werereinforced and day-oldterm by musicbutnotby wide-band noise. Since that even timeother research shownthat has are in infants awareofcontingencies learning tasks(Solkoff Cotton, & 1975) premature and thatauditory stimulation increasescerebral and blood oxygenconsumption activatesthefrontal lobes of thebrainin infants Zuo, & Wang, (Sakatani,Chen,Lichty, of music the 1999). Despitetheserather amazingfindings, actualincidence contingent forinfant is literature. learning sparsein theresearch The purposeof thisstudy was to identify analyzetheexisting and infant learning literature uses contingent that music. A meta-analysis conducted was thesecritewith riafor inclusion: experimental or studies 1) study designs; usinggroup individual subject and studiedpriorto theage of 1 year;3) 2) subjectswho were preterm terminfants musicincludedas a separate, in variable;and 4) reports theEnglishlanindependent and amenableto replicated data analysis. guage of design,procedures, results The procedures followedthefourbasic stepsof a meta-analysis: a complete (1) literature searchwas conducted find possiblemembers thedefined to all of population of studieswhether or and sources;(2) thecharacteristics findpublished unpublished and coded; (3) thesecodes described, ings of the collectedstudieswere identified, were independently reviewedfor reliability and agreement, then(4) each study's results werestatistically to effect sizes usingmetaanalyzedand converted computed (Johnson, 1989). analysissoftware The identification exhaustive searches MEDLINE, PsychFirst, of processincluded and FirstSearchRILM Abstractsof Music Literature. Keywordsfor searches of electronic indexesincluded and stimulaneonates, infants, music, contingent, auditory tion. The reference listsof all relevant articleslocatedin theelectronic searchwere also reviewed.

Standley

67

StudyDescriptions
for Eightstudiesmetcriteria inclusionin the meta-analysis.These studiesare withan asterisk thereferences are summarized in and marked below. Butterfield Siperstein1972) usedcontingent and musictoreinforce of ( sucking 2that to dayold infants. Theyalso demonstrated response musicwas differentiated from to wide-band noisewhich was noteffective increasing in that rate. sucking DeCasper and Carstens(1981) used contingent music to change the sucking of Those infants exposedtononcontingent first musicnever patterns newborns. learned task. Those first the musicdid learna new suckexposedto contingent intervals required. as ingpattern spacingtheir by sucking Etscheidt1989) taught to infant alertness contingent with music ( parents reinforce timeout excessivecrying to colic. Contingent for and to administer due music in of alone was effective reducing of whilethe crying a smallproportion infants combined music/timeout was with contingent procedure effective theothers. Finkelstein Ramey(1977) combined and music/slide contingent presentations in forinfant pullsand leverpressing a seriesofexperiments. arm Additionally, demonstrated experience that withthecontingency tasksfacilitated learnthey tasks. ingin subsequent Larson and Ayllon(1990) also combinedcontingent music withparent attenof in tionduring brief and periods quietalertness colickyinfants with periodsof timeout excessivecrying.This procedure reducedcrying of infants rate during withcolic by 75%. Standley(2000) assessed thecontingent effects musicon premature of infant behavior. It was determined pacifieractivatedlullabymusic reinforced that non-nutritive infants who were evaluatedas poor suckingratesof premature also discriminated feeders NICU personnel.These younginfants whenon/ by occurred.Resultsdemonstrated musicsucking that offmusicconditions rates thanbaselinerates. Music contributed were2.43 timesgreater to significantly of of infants. thedevelopment non-nutritive sucking premature Standley recorded lullabiesas reinforcement non-nutritive for (1999) provided ratespreandposttreatment. and sucking assessednipplefeeding Subjectswere infants whowerereferred beingpoornipplefeeders, for 32 premature were>34 weeks adjustedgestational 2 age, and who were able to tolerate simultaneous formsof stimulation (pacifierand music). Results showed thatcontingent in resulted a significantly better ratefortheexperimusic intervention feeding mentalgroupvs. the controlgroup. This studydemonstrated abilityof the infants transfer to reinforced behavior from non-nutritive to sucking premature nutritive events. Standley Madsen (1990) tested preference 1-8month infants and the of old for switchattached each infant's to music versusfemalevoices. A mercury leg stimuli. infants their activated contingent auditory Very young preferred mother's music. voice,whileolderinfants preferred

Data Extraction
wereidentified coded. The value ofeach depenand Qualitiesof selectedstudies effect intheselectedstudies was converted theestimated to dentvariable size, reported each study, samplesize, infant at its Cohen's d (Cohen, 1988). Table 1 identifies age converted effect to timeof study, variables,studystatistics size, and the dependent Table 2 showseach study's Cohen'sd andPearsonr statistics. designcharacresulting date of publication, variable,and status, teristics, publication independent including either between(B) or within (W) subjects. typeof data analysis,

68

Musicfor Infant The PowerofContingent Learning

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Table 2 StudyCharacteristics
Study Date Publication Status Refereed Publication Refereed Publication Independent Variables CM vs. Wide Band Noise CM vs. Continuous Music CM CM vs. Continuous Music CM & Parent Attention CM vs. Other Contingent Female Voice CM CM W=Within groups Data Analysis Betweenor WithinGroups W W W B W W

Butterfield 1972 & Siperstein DeCasper & Carstens Etscheidt 1981

1989 Unpublished Dissertation Refereed Publication Refereed Publication Refereed Publication

Finkelstein 1977 & Ramey *Larson & Ayllon Standley & Madsen Standley Standley 1990 1990

1999 2000

Unpublished paper Refereed Publication B=Between groups

B W

Music CM=Contingent * indicates outlier deleted

Results
all sizes werein a positive for The meta-analysis revealedthat effect direction the sizes of all eight musicon infant behavior.Analysisof theeffect effects contingent of studiesrevealed an overall d - 1.25 witha 95% confidenceintervalthatdid not size was statistically and conthat effect the include0. This indicated significant that andsignificant on musicgenerally a positive had variable. impact thetreatment tingent the that effect sizes of these the However, Q-value was significant (/?=.0004) meaning or meaneffect size. As studies werenotconsistent adequately explainedbythesingle, a Larson outlier, Qfollowing significant value,thelargest procedure permeta-analysis & Ayllon(1990), was examinedand deletedfromthe study. Resultsof the second revealeda revised analysisof thedata are shownin Table 3. Omissionof theoutlier This meansthat music overalld-\ . 15 and the Q value was notsignificant. contingent variin the7 studiesanalyzedhad a positiveand significant impacton thetreatment is ables. This effect adequately explainedby theoveralld=\. 15. elExamination Larson & Ayllon(1990) revealedthatthedata were highly of and also isolatedtwo majordifferences from the evatedabove otherstudies'results of werecollectedin thehomeby studies. Data on frequency infant crying remaining wereless stringent this in datacollection theinfants' procedures parents.Itmaybe that

70

Music forInfant The Power of Contingent Learning

context.Also, musicwas combinedwithparent attention during non-crying periods. This is theonlystudy reinforcer. musicwithanother pairing

Table 3 withOutlierDeleted OverallResultsofMetaAnalysis

Cohen's Effect Sized Overall Results 1.15 95% Confidence Interval +.81/+1.48 r .50 p. .000

Note: Q(6)=7.88;p=.25 Total 14.57 N=102;mean N/study=

Discussion
for Resultsof thismeta-analysis demonstrate powerof musicas a reinforcer the infants from birth the 8 of premature through first months life. It is a non-invasive treatment in infant theNeonain for suchas thepremature possibility infants distress, tal Intensive for Care Unit. In thissetting, musicis a primepossibility encouraging andfostering emergence problematic the of milestones. One suchcritidevelopmental cal skill would be the initiation endurance non-nutritive and of suckingto develop eventual after months nasogastric feedings. of tube Another would independent feeding be developing bondwiththeparents.This is difficult thehospital a in sincetheinfant often remains thereforseveralmonths and theparents mustreturn home to care for other children to go back to work. Even at discharge, premature or is the infant often withdrawn needs encouragement begintheprocessof reciprocating and to social reface,or smiling. sponsessuchas snuggling, gazingat thecaregiver's Music reinforcement are solutionfornew partechniques a viable and effective entswho, withtoo littlesleep and too muchanxiety, adaptingto care of a term are newborn.Whata relief have a viable and pleasurable to for technique a colickybaby with also be used forshaping children multiple of births frequent crying.Music might to and sleepingto facilitate (twinsor triplets) adaptto set timeschedulesforfeeding their care. Music reinforcement be usedto shapedesired could in behavior very young infants whoseundesirable behaviors exhaust their and parents reducethe ofhaving joy a new infant thehome. Such problematic in behaviorsmight includehyperactivity, excessive demandforattention, extended or whenplaced in thecribto sleep. crying Parents longerhave to feel thattheir no newborn too youngto be taught is adaptive behaviors facilitate calm,serenehousehold.It is obviousthat newborn not that a is the from birth. for, onlyprepared butin greatneed of,learning opportunities The researchliterature music enrichment infants on for and toddlers has been We musicparticipation teachesmusicskills, and prolific. knowthat perception, cognition. Simultaneously also promotes it childdevelopment areas suchas listening skills, motor social skillsand reciprocity. coordination, languagedevelopment, cooperative musiccreatesopportunities theemergence creativity. for of This study Additionally, adds to thatlong listof benefits demonstrating powerof musicto be a highly the by beneficial reinforcer children for from moment their the of birth.This is an exciting new area forfurther research development techniques. and of

Standley

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References
E. G. of stimu*Butterfield, C, & Siperstein, N. (1972). Influence contingent auditory lationupon non-nutritional suckle. In J.F. Bosma (Ed.), ThirdSymposium on Oral Sensationand Perception:TheMouthof theInfant (pp. 313-333). SpringIL: CharlesC. Thomas. field, Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysisfor the behavioralsciences (2nd ed.). Associates. Hillsdale,NJ: LawrenceErlbaum A. of Effects on *DeCasper,A. J.,& Carstens, A. (1981). Contingencies stimulation: in and Behaviorand Development, 19-35. 4, learning emotion neonates. Infant in de l'Etoile, S. K. (2001). An in-service training program musicforchild-care perwith infants toddlers. and Journal ResearchinMusicEducation, sonnelworking of 49, 6-20. to M. associated *Etscheidt, A. (1989). Parenttraining reducetheexcessivecrying colic. Unpublished doctoral with dissertation, infant GeorgiaStateUniversity. in N. *Finkelstein, W., & Ramey,C. (1977). Learningto controlthe environment ChildDevelopment, 806-819. 48, infancy. review researchlitB. Johnson, T. (1989). DSTAT: Software themeta-analytic for of erature.Hillsdale,NJ:LawrenceErlbaum Associates,Publishers. the the seriesfrom ChiKotulak,R. (1993, April). Unlocking mind,a prizewinning cago Tribune.Chicago Tribune. *Larson, & Ayllon, (1990). The effects contingent musicanddifferential reinof T. K., and Therapy, 119-125. colic. Behaviour Research on forcement infantile 28, in of andthedevelopment spatial intelligence F. Rauscher, H. (1999). Music exposure children.Bulletin theCouncilforResearchin Music Education,142, 35-47. of for R. J., Saffran, Loman, M., Robertson, (2000). Infant memory musical experiences. Cognition, B15-B23. 77, blood oxygenW., Sakatani, Chen,S., Lichty, Zuo, H., Wang,Y. (1999). Cerebral K., n infants measuredby stimulation newborn ationchangesinducedby auditory nearinfrared 55, EarlyHumanDevelopment, 229-236. spectroscopy. infants.Perawarenessin premature N. C. Solkoff, & Cotton, (1975). Contingency ceptualand MotorSkills,41, 709-710. of on J.M. (1996). A meta-analysis the effects music as reinforcement Standley, foreducation/therapy objectives. Journalof Researchin Music Education,44, 105-133. non-nutritive suckJ. of *Standley, M. (1999, November).Theeffect music-reinforced at infants. Paper presented the NinthWorld ing on feeding rate of premature D.C. Congressof Music Therapy, Washington, non-nutritive suckmusicto increase of J.M. (2000). The effect contingent *Standley, Pediatrie infants. 26, ingof premature Nursing, 493-499. and J. preferences *Standley, M., & Madsen, C. K. (1990). Comparisonof infant and femalevoice. Journal stimuli:Music,mother, other to of responses auditory Music Therapy, 54-97. 27, Summers,E.K. (1984). Categorizationand conservationof melody in infants. Dissertation Abstracts The University Washington). of (Doctoral Dissertation, International, 3643-A. 45, in and K. Wendrich, A. ( 198 1). Pitchimitation infancy earlychildhood:Observations of The and implications.(DoctoralDissertation, University Connecticut, 1980). A. Abstracts Dissertation International, 50 1941, to of P.E. (1995). A comparison fetaland newborn Wilkin, responses musicand sound withand without stimuli of dailyexposureto a specificpiece of music. Bulletin theCouncilforResearchin Music Education,127, 163-169.