Learning transfer Learning transfer can be referring to the efficiency and ability to apply the existing experience, knowledge

or skill to new learning process.

The generalization phase is a learning transfer phase whereby an individual tries to retrieve the related information from the long-term memory store and transfers it to a new learning process. This generalization phase is a phase which permits learning transfer to occur by applying the existed experience or knowledge to a new related situation.

Process of learning transfer can also occur during the conceptualization phase whereby an individual tries to use existing concept as well as his memory to process information received from external stimuli, and eventually formulates a new concept. Proactive inhibition can also be considered as a process that causes learning transfer, for example when the previous learning experience interferes with the new learning process.

The processes of conceptualization, generalization and proactive inhibition are similar as the old learning process which influences the new learning process that follows. The phenomenon of learning effect which occurs in this manner is known as learning transfer. Obviously, when the old learning can help to improve new learning, then this type of learning transfer is known as positive transfer. However, if the effect of old learning interferes or inhibits the process of new learning, then this type of transfer is known as negative transfer, which, in fact, is similar to proactive inhibition.

There are many examples where the phenomenon of learning transfer occurs in learning activities at school level. For example, the skill of Math can be used to learn Science, skill acquired from language can be used to write letter and essay as well as to acquire knowledge of other subjects. In short, learning transfer is a long-life process.

Types of learning transfer Positive learning transfer can be divided into lateral and vertical learning transfer. Lateral transfer is the application or acquired experience to another similar situation or activity with the same level of difficulty. For example, characteristic of air (Science) can be used to explain phenomenon of weather (Geography). Vertical transfer refers to an increase in experience which has been attained to a higher level, so that learning process can be upgraded further. For example, students should learn the skills of plus, follow by minus, multiply and divide.

Bilateral transfer (cross-training) refers to learning transfer in skill and training such as physical education. For example, Taekwondo testing can be conducted to proof the bilateral transfer. There are two students involved in the testing (Student A and B). A - Use right leg try to kick the target 50 times (20 times) - Use left leg try to kick the target 200 times (100 times) - Use right leg tries to kick the target 50 times (40 times) B - Use right leg try to kick the target 50 times (20 times) - Rest about 30 minutes - Use right leg tries to kick the target 50 times (30 times) Conclusion, student A has performed better in the testing. This can indicated that training by using left leg can enhance the skill right leg.

Mediated transfer occurs when an individual, who has learned a certain fixed response from the external stimuli, used the response as a medium to form a new response under the same category of the previous stimuli. For example, after learning how to draw human parts in drawing lesson will be helpful for a pupil to learn the name of human parts in Science class.

Learning set transfer is usually achieved through the experiences acquired from a number of learning with the same category. Transfer of' learning set could occur in two

different learning situations when a number of progressive training were held after the first learning situation. This is because during the time of progressive training, an individual has eventually acquired experiences from the learning set and developed a new learning skill to apply on the higher level learning situation. For example, a kid learns to cycle the bicycle. He fall down and ride again. He tries until his success.

Negative learning transfer is the old learning that interferes the new learning and vice versa. The reasons that cause this phenomenon of negative transfer to occur are as follow: (i) Proactive inhibition: the previous learning interferes the following learning process. For example, learning of Physic will interferes the following chemistry learning (confuse of concept). (ii) Retroactive inhibition: subsequent new learning interferes previous learning. Retroactive interference (negative transfer) occurs when new learning produces a backward effect, reducing the retrieval of previously learned material. For example, learning of Mandarin language may cause students to forget the structure of English language. (iii) Habitual inhibition: old habit interferes the formation of new habit. For example, a pupil who has the habit of writing with left hand will prevent him from developing a new habit to write with his right hand. For example, a student always studies in silent situation. If the situation is noisy, his surely cannot concentrate.

Zero transfer is the same as no learning transfer. It occurs in a certain new learning situation base on old learning, where the learning result is zero. One of the reasons for such zero learning is the inappropriate application of acquired skill or concept which is not related to the new learning. For example, it is not relevant to use the addition skill to learn division skill. For example, you dont know to swim. You see others swim. You cannot jump to the swimming pool. You see the skill of swim doesnt means you can swim.

Principles of learning transfer Principle of identical elements: The transfer of learning is likely to occur when both of the learning contains same or similar elements. For example, Physic and Additional Math may have same concept in certain field.

Principle of sufficient basic training: The more basic exercises held in the early period of learning, the more likely that learning transfer will take place. For example, process of swimming.

Principle of stimuli diversification: If there are more diversified training during the early learning period, it is more likely that learning transfer will occur in the new learning. For example, learning of Bahasa Malaysia & Bahasa Inggeris will help students to learn Science & Math.

Principle of insight: Learning transfer is likely to occur with the use of insight and repeated training. For example, the pupil who good in Math (strong in basic) will easier to handle Additional Math, Physic, and business.

Principle of learning set: The skill of learning for learning which is a learning set acquired from a set of learning experiences, will facilitate learning transfer for the new learning, though they might not have possessed similar elements in each other. For example, good in English help to master Science and Math subject

Theories of learning transfer Identical elements theory: Thorndike This theory was introduced by Thorndike in 1913. The main reason why old learning is an effective learning transfer towards new learning is that both learning situations possess identical or similar elements. The more similar elements contained in both of the learnings, then more quantity of learning transfer will take place. For example, Math and Physic has some similar concept in certain field. On the other hand, if both learning possess less similar elements, then the quantity of learning transfer will be less. Further,

if both of the learnings do not posses any similar element, then learning transfer will not take place.

This theory is very influential in education especially in the planning of school curriculum. For example, one of the important principles used for the planning of KBSR and KBSM is based on Thorndike's identical elements theory. The integration strategy which has been used in the teaching-learning activities is also planned according to the theory of identical elements.

Generalization theory This theory was introduced by Judd (1908), a well-known psychologist in USA. The principles which have been acquired through experiences is the main factor that facilitates learning transfer. For example, you know the characteristic of dog. You wont get close to strange dog. But kids may do. The theory is closely related to deduction method/induction method, used to form principles and facilitate learning transfer.

Transposition Theory The theory was introduced by Klausmier and Ripple (1971) to describe learning transfer as additional ability. The theory emphasized the overall characteristics in human behavior/experience. It also called Relationship Theory. All the element must organized to form an overall pattern. It is not like Identical Elements Theory which looks on similar element. Take a example, The playing field is like a battle field to describe players & soldiers. Both of the theory contains spirit of cooperation and synthesis technique to defeat the opponent.

Strategy & Principle to Facilitate Positive Learning Transfer in Teaching-Learning Activities The phenomenon of learning transfer actually occurs from skill acquired in the old learning to the new learning. However, learning transfer can be positive or negative. The basic principle and strategy in teaching and learning is, while teaching a certain learning unit, teachers ought to consider the possibility of learning transfer to occur in

the following learning unit. The learning content should be divided into stages based on the principle from old learning to new learning; from old skill or concept which has been mastered to the learning of new skill or concept; from acquired generalization to the formation of new generalization; from basic materials to complex materials; and from simple problems to complex problems. Besides that, other strategies and principles which can facilitate positive learning transfer in teaching-learning activities are briefly discussed as follows:

Announce learning objectives before lessons: If pupils are informed with learning objective, they may ready for what to learn and how to prepare for exam.

Emphasis on acquiring concept and instill thinking skill: Concept learning is a simple horizontal learning transfer. Inquiry-discovery method provide opportunity to observe,

find ascertain, think, analyze, interpret and finally discover concepts, principles, theorems, or laws.

Cumulative experiences & systematic organization: Experiences must well arrange from basic to more complex. For example, teacher should teach operation in addition, follow by subtraction, multiplication, and division. Besides that, relationship between subjects for effective learning need to be consider as well. For example, concept in Math may have similar in Physic.

Teach concept with suitable examples: Teaching & learning activities with examples help student to know more the concepts & principles taught. For example, teacher is teaching momentum concept required available experiment. This is due to concepts are abstract, concrete examples are better for students.