Outline Presentation

WOOD AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

1.1. Introduction
1.2. Wood structure
1.2.1. Anatomy of wood
1.2.2 Methods of conversion
1.3. Natural defects
1.4. Wood preservation
1.5. Fire retardants
1.6. Wood axes
1.7. Lumber grading
1.8. Timber constructions development
1.8.1. Timber frames for houses
1.8.2. Timber frames for bridges
1.8.3. Great timber structures
WHY TIMBER AS A BUILDING MATERIAL ?
Since ancient times, wood and stone have been important
construction materials.
ADVANTAGES:
The simplicity with which it can be worked by hand or
by machine.
The tooling costs are relatively low compared with
competitive materials.
Wood is ideal if it is necessary to erect an individual
structure for a particular purpose but it is equally
suitable for small batch or mass production.
Wood remains the cheapest of all structural materials
Its excellent thermal insulation.
The unique aesthetic properties of finished wood.
Its high strength to weight ratio:
Wood is strong with outstanding rigidity in bending
and strength in compression.
Wood has exceptional stability in the longitudinal
direction, even when subjected to fluctuating
moisture content .
Wood is free from corrosion .
The variability between woods of different species
may appear to be a disadvantage to the
unintelligent user but it is, in fact, a distinct
advantage, as different species have different
properties and there is almost always a suitable
wood for a particular purpose.
However, there is one feature of wood that is
unique amongst all structural materials:
it is a CROP
that can be obtained whereas its competitors
such as stone, brick, metal and plastics are
all derived from exhaustible resources.
This feature is alone sufficient to ensure that
wood will continue to be used as a structural
material virtually forever.
As a plant a tree consists of a
crown of branches with leaves,
generally supported on a single
main stem known as the trunk (or
bole) which connects the crown to
the roots in the ground
Anatomy of wood
Longitudinal axis
Radial axis
Tangential axis
WOOD AXES
Heartwood is the older
wood in the central portion of
a tree, which has ceased
participating actively in the
physiology of tree life.
Sapwood is the newer
wood, which usually appears
as a lighter coloured band
immediately within the bark,
extending inward from a few
too many annual rings,
depending upon species.
Woods are commonly divided into softwoods (the
cone-bearing plants that are conifers) and
hardwoods (the broad-leaved plants meaning
dicotyledonae and monocotyledonae).
Typical softwood species are the pines (trad.- pin),
firs (trad.- brad), spruces (trad.- molid), and
redwoods (trad.- soiuri de conifere), while typical
hardwood species include the oaks (trad.- stejar),
maples (trad.- artar), beeches (trad.- fag) and
birches (trad.- mesteacan).
Methods of conversion
The first level of wood for construction is the log (trad.- bustean,
barna). The logs are converted into sawn wood (trad.-
cherestea, lemn ecarisat) by means of conversion saws.
TRUNK is barked (peeled) LOG is converting SAWN WOOD
There are different ways to cut the log to produce timber.The
manner in which the log is sawn is usually considered to be
relatively unimportant. It is not so, because the manner can
influence the behaviour of the sawn wood.
The simplest technique is to make a large number of parallel
cuts, a method known as through-and-through, flat sawn or back
sawn. The outer boards are largely cut in the tangential plane while
the middle board is in the radial plane, the angle between the annual
rings and the surface of the board progressively varying through the
intermediate boards.
Another manner is quarter-sawn boards. It is particularly
suitable for use as flooring as they do not suffer the cupping that is a
characteristic of tangential or outer flat sawn boards.
An alternative method of conversion known as billet sawn is to
make three through-and-through cuts to provide two flat sawn
boards from the centre of the log. These will naturally include any
heart defects, which can then be removed when the boards are re-
sawn. The remaining wood consists essentially of two half logs
often known as wainscot billets. These billets are then turned on to
their flat face and re-sawn to give a number of boards.
(a) through
and through
sawn
(b) quarter cut
(c) billet
sawn
Methods of log conversion
(sawn wood)
end grain
(transverse
section)
flat sawn
plain sawn
slash sawn
(tangential
surface)
rift sawn
quarter sawn
(radial
surface)
1. timber slat (strip)
2. boards (lumber) (trad.-
cherestea, scandura).
3. sawn timber collar beams
(trad.- grinzi).
4. thick plank (trad.- scandura
groasa, dulapi).
5. sawn timber columns and
beams
mm 40 h s
mm 60 b s
mm 40 h s
mm 80 b >
mm 100 h mm 40 s s
mm 80 b s
mm 100 h mm 40 s s
mm 100 b >
mm 100 h >
mm 100 b >
b = width
h = thickness
(height, depth)
b = width
h = thickness
(height, depth)

- planed square edged board
- planed tongued and grooved board
- planed tongued and grooved with V joint board
(match boarding)
- plain weather-board
- rebated weather-board



- boards
- ship-lap weather-board
- sawn timber columns



log
- sawn timber beams


- floorboards
- doors
- door frames
- door stops
- architrave
- skirting
- panelling
- windows
- window frames
- surrounds and faces





- joinery (millwork)
- large-boards and cladding

WOOD DEFECTS
Mainly degradation of wood can be grouped into two broad
categories: biological deterioration from fungal decay or
insect attack, and mechanical deterioration.
Wood has various natural defects, which can influence the
strength and thereby arrive at a value, which is
acceptable for these defects.
Defects may be classified as natural defects, chemical
defects, conversion defects and seasoning defects.
All the defects may degrade wood, with the degree of
degradation being reflected in varying degrees of loss in
mechanical properties.
WOOD DEFECTS
Seasoning defects. These defects are bowing, springing,
twisting and cupping. Seasoning defects are directly related
to the movement that occurs in timber due to changes in
moisture content. All such defects have an effect on
structural strength as well as on fixing, stability, durability
and finished appearance.
Chemical defects may occur in particular instances when
timber is used in unsuitable positions or in association with
other materials. Most woods are slightly acidic and produce
acetic acid if stored in damp conditions. Timber such as oak
contains tannin, which corrode metals. Gums and resins
adversely affect working properties and ability to take glue
and surface finishes, while silica in some hardwoods blunts
tools.
A knot is the part of a branch, which became enclosed in a growing tree.
knot (local disturbance of grain)
Knots, Grain defects (trad. defecte de fibra), Annual ring width,
Fissures and cracks, Fungal decay
Grain defects are the measure of the deviation of the
fibres from the longitudinal axis of the piece.
Annual ring width can be critical in respect of strength in that excess
width of such rings can reduce the density of the timber.
growth rings
Knots
Grain defects
Annual ring width
Mechanical deterioration
Fissures and cracks
A fissure is any separation of fibres in a longitudinal plane and includes checks,
shakes and splits. Their existence reduces the cross-sectional area,
resisting shear and bending stress.
Fungal decay
Wormholes are permitted to
a slight extent provided that
there is no active infestation.
Wood wasp holes are not
permitted. Decayed wood
should not be accepted.
Biological deterioration
The following preservatives are recognised in the standards:
Preservative oils:
- Creosote
- Creosote-coal-tar solutions
- Creosote-petroleum solutions
Oil-borne preservatives:
- Pentachlorophenol
- Copper naphthenate
Water-borne preservatives:
- Chromated zinc chloride (CZC)
- Fluor chrome arsenate phenol (FCAP)
- Tanalith (Wolman salts)
- Celcure
- Chemonite
- Greensalt (Eradlith)
- Boliden salts
Recently fire-retardant resin treatments have
been developed.
The alternative is the impregnation of the
wood with fire retardant salts.
The fire endurance rating R, in minutes, is:
( ) ZbG R 54 . 2 = in [min.]
where: - Z = factor dependent on load applied and member type. It has values
between 1 and 1.5;
- b = width dimension of cross section of beam or of larger dimension
of a column before exposure to fire;
- G = beam or column cross-sectional factor.
L = longitudinal axis
R = radial axis
T = tangential axis
L = longitudinal axis
T = transverse axis
Wood is considered to be orthotropic, having
unique and independent properties in the
direction of three perpendicular axes
Grading is the process of classifying timber according to quality for a particular use.
Quality
class
Load type and destination
I Timber elements are subjected to tension and bending
(Truss girders, beams and wood dowels)
II a) Timber elements are subjected to compression and
bending
b) Timber elements are subjected to tension and tension +
bending where effective stresses are 70% of allowable
wood strengths
III Secondary timber elements (Roof covering)
SAWN WOOD (TIMBER) GRADING
Structural designers are interested in strength and stiffness, so
modern grading rules provide for what is sometimes called stress grading.
The two methods used for stress grading are:
visual grading;
machine grading.
The minimum requirements for visual grading standards have been
laid down in the European Code EN-518 Structural timber Grading
Requirements for visual grading standards. Requirements for machine
grading can be found in EN-519 Structural timber Grading
Requirements for machine strength graded timber and grading
machines.
Guidance on the use of timber in building and civil engineering
structures is given also by the Romanian code SR-EN 1995-1/2004.
To know where we shall
go, we need to know
where the craft has
started.
1.8.1. Timber frames for houses
Primitive structures
Long tent with ridge purlin Round tent
Early wood structure
Wood structure
Timber house frame
Log home
Timber frame home
Timber frame structure of the Middle Ages
Old English style timber frame
Typical American timberframe house
1.8.2. Timber frames for bridges
Natural pedestrian bridges
Primitive timber bridges
The Drobeta-Turnu Severin bridge designed
by Apolodor and built by Romans
Different timber bridge structures
Silverthorne, Colorado
Picnic Pavilion
1.8.3. Great timber structures
Bulk storage building built by Bunnings Limited
for Texada Mines Pty. Ltd, - 41 m span
39. 6 m span truss roof aircraft hangars
31.7 m span nail jointed arched store
and workshop buildings
Wood Research and Development, LLC
1760 SW 3rd Street
Corvallis, OR 97333, U.S.A.
Outline Presentation
1. INTRODUCTION
2. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Hardness and toughness
Thermal properties
Electrical properties
Acoustical properties
Density and specific gravity
Moisture content
3. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Stiffness properties
Strength properties
4. STRENGTH CLASSES
5. INFLUENCE OF VARIOUS FACTORS ON
WOOD PROPERTIES
Density
Moisture content
Knots
Fibre and ring orientation
Temperature
Duration of load
Chemicals and decay
1. INTRODUCTION
The arrangement of fibres in wood suggests that wood may have different
characteristics in the various directions within itself. Specifically wood is
considered to be orthotropic, having unique and independent properties in the
direction of three mutually perpendicular axes.
The mechanical properties of wood used in design process of a building
element are usually referred to the following axes: longitudinal axis and
transverse axis. The transverse axis is used instead of tangential or radial axes
because the variability of the same property about them is less and of minor
importance in timber element design.
The strength of wood is highly dependent upon direction tensile strength
values in longitudinal:radial:tangential directions on average are in the ratio of
20:1.5:1.
L = longitudinal axis
R = radial axis
T = tangential axis
L = longitudinal axis
T = transverse axis
Properties of wood a key for civil engineers to
use wood as a building materials
Physical properties
Density. Moisture content. Hardness and
Toughness. Electrical properties. Acoustical
properties. Thermal properties. Behaviour in
fire. Resistance to corrosion and environmental
factors.
Mechanical properties
Strength properties. Elastic properties. Fatigue
strength. Fracture toughness.
Manufacturing
properties
Ability to be shaped by machines. Ability to be
joined by adhesives.
Economic properties
Processing cost. Availability.
Aesthetic properties
Appearance. Texture and ability to accept special
finishes.
2. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Hardness and toughness
Sawn-wood is frequently described in terms of its
hardness and toughness, but these are terms that
are difficult to define. Sometimes wood is said to be
very tough because it is difficult to saw or plane, or it
has good resistance to abrasion, splitting or shock
loads.
The ability to resist excessive shock is probably the property
that can best be described as toughness.
Hardness is the ability of wood to resist penetration
Specific heat is the term used to describe the amount of heat energy that is required to
raise the unit mass of the material through one degree of temperature. The specific heat
of wood is comparatively high, four times as high as that of copper, but this relates to
the mass of material.
The thermal conductivity of wood is approximately 0.4% of that of steel and 0.05% of that
of copper. The thermal conductivity varies approximately in proportion to density .
Thermal conductivity in the longitudinal direction (L) is 2.25 to 2.75 times the value given
for the (T) or (R) directions.
The average Longitudinal coefficient of thermal expansion
o
L
=3.6 x 10-6 /
o
C
Radial and tangential coefficients of thermal expansion
- for softwoods:
o
T
= 1.8 x 45 x specific gravity x 10-6 [/
o
C]
o
R
= 1.8 x 31 x specific gravity x 10-6 [/
o
C]
- for hardwoods:
o
T
= 1.8 x 32 x specific gravity x 10-6 [/
o
C]
o
R
= 1.8 x 32 x specific gravity x 10-6 [/
o
C]
Thermal properties
Temperature affects both dimensional stability and strength of wood. Wood
expands as its temperature increases, as do other construction materials. Its
coefficients of expansion vary with direction, being largest radially and
tangentially, and least longitudinally. Wood is a good insulator, that is, it has a
high resistance to heat flow.
Electrical properties
Wood at a low moisture content is normally classified
as an electric insulator, or dielectric, rather than as a
conductor
Tangential and radial resistance exceed longitudinal
resistance for wood.
Wood density, moisture effects and temperature have
effects on resistance of wood to electrical current.
The direct current properties of materials are
measured by resistivity or by its reciprocal,
conductivity.
Acoustical properties
Sound insulating values are related to the sound
transmission. The reduction of sound in its
transmission through a material is dependent
upon the weight of the material. Since wood has a
lower density than many structural materials, its
effectiveness in blocking transmitted sound is not
high.
Sound absorption coefficient for a material is
used to determine the total magnitude of the
absorption property of the material.
Density and specific gravity
Specific gravity (G) or relative density is the
weight of a substance to that of an equal volume
of water.
Density is the mass per unit volume normally
expressed as kg/m
3
. Basic specific gravity is
defined as:
water displaced of mass
mass dry
V
m
G
g w w
g
= = =

0
0
where
w
is the density of water and
V
g
is the green wood volume.
The density or weight per unit volume of a piece of wood is a particularly
important property. Density [kg/m
3
], where m is the mass of timber [kg] and
V is its volume [m3] is defined as:
Wood substance has a density of about 1500 kg/m3.
Wood itself consists of a mixture of wood substance and spaces,
therefore the amount of wood substance per unit volume decides
the dry density, which can vary in common species from about 300
kg/m3 to 800 kg/m3.
Wood is considered to have moderate density if its dry density lies
between about 360 and 500 kg/m3, so that woods below this range
are light woods and those above are heavy woods.
V
m
=
Density
e
at a moisture content e [%] is expressed, related to volumetric
shrinkage
V
, as:
( )
( ) e |
e

e |
e

e
e
e
V V
.
.
. V
. m
V
m
01 0 1
01 0 1
01 0 1
01 0 1
0
0
0
+
+
=
+
+
= =
Moisture content
( )
100

=
weight dry
weight dry weight original
e
Moisture content, MC or e, is the weight of water in the
wood expressed as a percentage of the weight
of the oven-dry wood
During seasoning, most of the water in the cell cavities is lost,
leaving a condition known as the fibre-saturation point (FSP).
Changes in dimensions tend to be linear with moisture in the
range of 5 to 20% moisture content. In this range movements
can be calculated from:
where: - h1 and h2 are the dimensions at moisture e1 and e2;
- | is the coefficient of swelling (positive) or shrinkage
(negative).
( )
(

+ =
1 2 1 2
100
1 e e
|
h h
[N/mm
2
] o
MC
20 30 40 10
Fibre-saturation point
[%]
Variation of strength versus moisture content
The graph shows that the fibre-saturation point occurs at around 25-
30% and 25% is generally accepted as being a norm in sawn lumber
and timber strength assessment. Between the fibre-saturation point
and zero moisture content, wood shrinks as it loses moisture and
swells as it absorbs moisture. Above the fibre-saturation point, there
is no dimensional change with variation in moisture content.
3. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
(behavior of wood under applied forces)
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
The strength and stiffness properties of most interest in
structural design are:
compressive strength parallel to the grain;
compressive strength perpendicular to the grain;
tensile strength parallel to the grain;
bending strength;
shear strength;
modulus of elasticity parallel to the grain;
shear modulus.
L = longitudinal axis
R = radial axis
T = tangential axis
L = longitudinal axis
T = transverse axis
Stiffness properties
The modulus of elasticity, also called Youngs modulus, usually used in
the design process is taken as a longitudinal modulus, E
L
. Data for E
R
and E
T
are not extensive and usually they are not presented as
allowable properties for species. However, where a transverse
modulus, E
T
(or E

), is essential in design, an approximation often used

is 0.06 times the longitudinal value.
G
LR
, G
LT
and G
RT
denote the three moduli of rigidity, or shear moduli, in
the (LR), (LT) and (RT) planes respectively.
The six Poisson's ratios are denoted by v
LR
, v
RL
, v
LT
, v
TL
, v
RT
and
v
TR
.
Prop.
Wood
Modulus of elasticity [N/mm
2
] Shear modulus
[N/mm
2
]
G
RT
E
L
(E
//
) E
T
(E

)
Softwood
10,000 11,300 300 500
Hardwood
11,500 14,300 600 1000
Romanian codes present the design values of:
- elasticity modulus in longitudinal (parallel) direction, E
L
- elasticity modulus in transverse (perpend.) direction, E
T
- shear modulus G
RT
for softwood and hardwood.
Strength class (charactersic values) system established in
SR-EN 338 Structural timber Strength classes (EC5)
C14 C16 C18 C22 C24 C27 C30 C35 C40
[N/mm
2
]
f
m,k
14 16 18 22 24 27 30 35 40
f
t,0,k
8 10 11 13 14 16 18 21 24
f
t,90,k
0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
f
c,0,k
16 17 18 20 21 22 23 25 26
f
c,90,k
4.3 4.6 4.8 5.1 5.3 5.6 5.7 6.0 6.3
f
v,k
1.7 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.5 2.8 3.0 3.4 3.8
[kN/mm
2
]
E
0,mean
7 8 9 10 11 12 12 13 14
E
0,05
4.7 5.4 6.0 6.7 7.4 8.0 8.0 8.7 9.4
E
90,mean
0.23 0.27 0.30 0.33 0.37 0.40 0.40 0.43 0.47
G
mean
0.44 0.50 0.56 0.63 0.69 0.75 0.75 0.81 0.88
[kg/m
3
]

k
290 310 320 340 350 370 380 400 420
m = bending;
t = tension;
c = compression;
v = shear;
f = strength
k = characteristic;
0 = parallel to the grain;
90 = perpendicular to the grain.
D30 D35 D40 D50 D60 D70
[N/mm
2
]
f
m,k
30 35 40 50 60 70
f
t,0,k
18 21 24 30 36 42
f
t,90,k
0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.9
f
c,0,k
23 25 26 29 32 34
f
c,90,k
8.0 8.4 8.8 9.7 10.5 13.5
f
v,k
3.0 3.4 3.8 4.6 5.3 6.0
[kN/mm
2
]
E
0,mean
10 10 11 14 17 20
E
0,05
8.0 8.7 9.4 11.8 14.3 16.8
E
90,mean
0.64 0.69 0.75 0.93 1.13 1.33
G
mean
0.60 0.65 0.70 0.88 1.06 1.25
[kg/m
3
]

k
530 560 590 650 700 900
It ranges from the weakest grade of
softwood, C14, to the highest grade
of hardwood, D70, currently used
in Europe.
Experimental data show that all-important characteristic strength
and stiffness properties can be approximated from either bending
strength, modulus of elasticity or density. These relationships,
according to EC5, are:
45 . 0
, , 0 ,
5
k m k c
f f =
8 . 0
, ,
2 . 0
k m k v
f f =
k k t
f = 001 . 0
, 90 ,
16
, 0 mean
mean
E
G =
k m k t
f f
, , 0 ,
6 . 0 =
k k c
f = 015 . 0
, 90 ,
mean
E E
, 0 05 . 0
67 . 0 =
30
, 0
, 90
mean
mean
E
E =
5. INFLUENCE OF VARIOUS FACTORS ON WOOD
PROPERTIES
Density ()
The relation between mechanical properties and
specific gravity has the form:
where: - S = the value of any particular mechanical property
- G = specific gravity
- K, n = constants depending on the particular property being
considered.
n
KG S =
Moisture content
Mechanical properties increase with decrease in moisture content. Most
clear wood mechanical properties obey the following relation in the vicinity
of 20
o
C:
2
2 1
2
2 1
MC MG
MC MC
MG
MC
MC MC
P
P
P P

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
- PMG = value of property for all moisture contents greater
than moisture content MG (slightly below fibre saturation point),
at which property changes due to drying are first observed.
In timber design the influence of moisture is taken into
consideration by assigning timber structures to
service classes.
The European code EC5 and the Romanian anexes
define this modification factor, m
ui
.
Code gives the following values (subscript i defines the
load type):
- 1.00 for all types of loads and the first service class
of the timber construction;
- 0.90 for all types of loads and the second service
class of the timber construction;
- 0.70 0.90 for the third service class of the timber
construction and different loads.
Knots
Influence of a knot on the mechanical properties
of a product varies depending upon the size,
location, and type of stress that is applied to the
member
Fibre and ring orientation
The influence of fibre direction on mechanical properties
can be approximated by Hankinson's formula:
u u
n n
Q P
PQ
N
cos sin +
=
where:
- N = the property at an angle u;
- u = the angle between property direction and direction
parallel to the grain;
-Q = the property across the grain;
- P = the property parallel to the grain;
- n = empirically determined constant.
Immediate effect of temperature on
strength properties
Temperature
0 +20 +100 -100
[
o
C]
+200 -200
100
200
Property
[percent of value at 20
o
C]
Duration of load
m
di
, generally called working condition coefficient or modification factor
Type of
load
Load duration
class
Symbol
m
di
softwood hardwood
Static bending
Shear
Permanent load
m
di
m
df
0.55 0.60
Long term
variable load
0.65 0.70
Short term
variable load
1.00 1.00
Compression
Permanent load
m
dc
0.80 0.85
Long term
variable load
0.85 0.90
Short term
variable load
1.00 1.00
Tension
Permanent load
m
dt
0.90 0.95
Long term
variable load
0.95 1.00
Short term
variable load
1.00 1.00
Elasticity
modulus
Permanent load
m
dE
1.00 1.00
Long term
variable load
1.00 1.00
Short term
variable load
1.00 1.00
Chemicals and decay
Chemicals may degrade wood, the degree of
degradation being reflected in varying degrees of loss in
mechanical properties. The effect of chemicals on
mechanical properties is highly dependent upon the
specific type of chemicals.
Wood-destroying fungi seriously reduce strength.
One measure of the progress of decay is the amount of
weight loss as a result of fungal attack.
Insects may destroy most of a piece of wood, frequently
without external evidence of the damage.