References
1. 2. 3. 4. AUSTROADS (2008). Guide to Pavement Technology Part 2:Pavement Structural Design. AUSTROADS Incorporated. A Guide to the Selection and use of Naturally Occurring Materials as Base and Sub-base in Roads in Western Australia. Main Roads Western Australia. Main Roads WA. (2010). Specification 501 Pavements Document 04/10110-03 Issue 08/01/10 MAIN ROADS Western Australia. Main Roads WA. (2010) Procedure for the Design of Flexible Pavements Engineering Road Note 9, MAIN ROADS Western Australia, January 2010
Worked Example 3
Determine 15 and 40 year design traffic (in terms of ESA, SAR5, SAR7, SAR12) for Great Northern Highway (GNH) between West Swan Rd and Apple St. (Note: Traffic growth rate is 0.03; GNH is one carriageway highway with 1 lane in each direction; the 1st design year is 2010) AADT and classification data surveyed in 2007 obtained from MRWA Reporting Centre is as follows ;
2007 1-w AADT 6170 Class (ci) 1 79.93% 2 4.88% 3 4.91% 4 1.41% 5 0.29% 6 0.26% 7 0.50% 8 0.51% 9 2.07% 10 1.55% 11 3.70% 12 0.01%
F3, F4, F12 at SLK 35 of GNH (Muchea) from ERN9 will be adopted:
F3 0.38 F4 2.24 F5 1.91 F6 0.56 F7 0.88 F8 2.36 F9 3.24 F10 4.08 F11 5.31 F12 8.04
Worked Example 3
For average number of vehicles in 2010 i 1 Use AADTi = aadt(1 + r ) where i = 4 and the growth rate is 0.03
AADT in 2010 is 6742 ;
15 year design ESA = 365*6742*100*18.60*(4.91*0.38+1.41*2.24++0.01*8.04)*10-4 =1.83E+07 40 year design ESA = 365*6742*100*75.40*(4.91*0.38+1.41*2.24++0.01*8.04)*10-4 =7.43E+07
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Worked Example 3
Using SAR5/ESA, SAR7/ESA, SAR12/ESA listed Table 8 in ERN9, design SARs can be calculated as follows; 15 year design traffic: SAR5 = ESA*SAR5/ESA = 1.83E+07 *1.1 =2.01E+07; SAR7 = ESA*SAR7/ESA = 1.83E+07*1.6 = 2.93E+07; SAR12 = ESA*SAR12/ESA = 1.83E+07*12 = 2.20E+08; 40 year design traffic: SAR5 = ESA*SAR5/ESA = 7.43E+07 *1.1 =8.17E+07; SAR7 = ESA*SAR7/ESA = 7.43E+07*1.6 = 1.19E+08; SAR12 = ESA*SAR12/ESA = 7.43E+07*12 = 8.92E+09;
Example: Rural highway, say NDT calculation gives NDT = 5 107 (i.e. cumulative HVAG) ESA = NDT ESA/HVAG = 5 107 0.9 = 4.5 107 For asphalt: SARa = ESA (SARa/ESA) = 4.5 107 1.1 = 4.95 107 For subgrade: SARs = ESA (SARs/ESA) = 4.5 107 1.6 = 7.2 107 For cemented layers: SARc = ESA (SARc/ESA) = 4.5 107 12 = 5.4 108 Because of the different fatigue damage exponents (5, 7, 12) for each material type, for a given total design traffic (given number of HVAG), the equivalent number of repetitions of the standard axle (SAR) is different for each material type. Thus, for 5 107 HVAG, have to design cemented layer to take 5.4 108 standard axle repetitions, but have to design asphalt to take only 4.95 107 standard axle repetitions.
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Design Life
The minimum design life for pavement as per MRWA Engineering Road Note 9: PROCEDURE FOR THE DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS is as follows; Unless specified otherwise by the Principal, asphalt must have the following minimum design life:
Asphalt 60 mm nominal total thickness or less - 15 years fatigue life; Asphalt greater than 60 mm nominal total thickness - 40 years fatigue life.
Design Approach
Calculate the design traffic in terms of the number of design equivalent standard axles, DESA Calculate the design SAR (i.e. DSAR) for each material from DESA, using appropriate factor Choose a pavement structure (number of layers and layer thicknesses) Assign stiffness values to each layer (or sublayer, as shown later) Using layered elastic theory (i.e. the CIRCLY program), calculate the strains at the critical points (tensile strains in bound layers, and vertical compressive strain in the subgrade) under a single static application of the Standard Axle Use these strains to calculate the allowable number of SAR for each material, using the generic formula: b K Allowable number of SAR = N SAR = Compare allowable SAR (NSAR) to the design SAR (DSAR) If all design DSAR allowable NSAR, pavement is OK. If not, change one or more layers until this condition is met. In CIRCLY, this is expressed as the Cumulative Damage Factor (CDF) for each layer:
CDF =
DSAR N SAR
Optimisation involves choosing layer thickness such that the allowable ESA for each layer is as close as possible to the design ESA.
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L .3 0
0.6 L
Tyre Pressure, q
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Notations
Assumptions (Boussinesque solution) 1. Linear elastic, isotropic, homogeneous half space 2. Circular loaded area
Not directly applicable to anisotropic layered materials, but diagram gives a representative picture of vertical stress (normalised by the applied surface pressure q) reducing below the centreline of the load (r/a = 0), and also the variation at different radii away from the centre of the loaded area.
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Strains
1 2 3 3
1. 2. 3. Critical locations
Asphalt Granular material Cemented material Tensile strain at bottom of asphalt Tensile strain at bottom of cemented material Compressive strain at top of subgrade
Standard Axle
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E R= E subgrade
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Fifth (Final) sublayer of granular material Fourth sublayer of granular material Third layer of granular material Second sublayer of granular material First sublayer of granular material Subgrade
Note: One of the big advantages of placing a cemented layer lower in the profile (below a granular layer), is that, in such cases, sublayering of the granular layer is not required. Thus, in the example above, sublayering forces the reduction of the modulus of a good quality base material in the lower 4 sublayers. However, if this layer rested directly on a cemented layer, sublayering is not required, so that the full thickness of the granular material can be assigned the same value as the top sublayer in a sublayered system 500 MPa in this case. CIVL4121: Pavement Design: 16
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500 Depth of top of sublayer (mm) from Subgrade 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 50 0 79 126 199 315
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3. Determine the elastic parameters (as above) of the top sublayer of the granular layer (if relevant) 4. Determine the elastic parameters and thickness of the other granular sublayers (if relevant) (The Granular layer should be divided into 5 sublayers and a special interpolation is made for the modulus of each of these sublayers between the subgrade and the top sublayer) 5. Determine the elastic parameters for cemented materials, pre- and post-cracking 6. Determine the elastic parameters for asphalt 7. Use the subgrade fatigue criterion to calculate the allowable NSAR for the subgrade 8. Use the fatigue strain criterion for a cemented layer to calculate the allowable NSAR for this layer 9. Use the fatigue strain criterion for an asphalt layer to calculate the allowable NSAR for the asphalt 10. Determine design number of SAR for each relevant distress mode (i.e. DSARa, DSARc, DSARs for the asphalt, cemented layer, and subgrade, respectively)
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Main Roads in WA
What ratios of MRWA pavement construction are of the following types (I am assuming that practically 100% is flexible pavement): (a) full pavement where the asphalt is part of the structural system ~ 0.05% (b) full pavement where there is minimum asphalt cover (40 mm or less ?) ~5% almost all in the metro area, some in major urban centres such as Albany and other sites are steep grades and intersections subject to heavy vehicles turning movements (c) full pavement where there is only a spray seal / chipseal, but no asphalt ~92% (d) unsealed pavement ~3% of the 37,445 lane km Is it the case that that (a) is only used for major urban freeways/highways, or is it also used for major rural highways? Rural asphalt is typically only short lengths of 30mm or 40mm thickness at intersections - type (b) above. Type (a) would be very rare in regional areas. The attraction is not so much the structural properties or long life, it is the rapid construction time that reduces the traffic control costs and other fixed overheads typically incurred with granular construction. Processes such as mixing, surface finishing and trimming, drying back layers before placing the next layer or applying a prime seal are all take time and drying back layers is only effective in warm dry conditions. Rain events can prolong the time required. Do you have a notional cost per m2 of these pavement types (I know this depends on many factors, including pavement thickness, so just some general figures would be fine - or even figures that were in terms of thickness)? The average cost of metropolitan pavements is $1.6M / lane km and regional costs would be in the order of $300, 000 / lane km. How commonly do you use a cemented layer somewhere in the pavement (that is, apart from an asphalt layer)? It it's used, is it always separated from the asphalt layer by an unbound granular layer, or is it directly below the asphalt layer (or seal)? We do routinely stabilise pavement materials with cement and lime to improve the properties of marginal material (usually after failure but sometimes at initial construction) or basecourse that will be used in poor drainage conditions. Those pavements are still considered as unbound layers with UCS values < 1MPa and modulus < about 1000MPa. Rural pavement repairs typically comprise in situ stabilisation of 200mm of pavement with 2% LH cement. We have very recently constructed a short length of bound pavement under 175mm of asphalt at Leach /Orrong intersection as a construction expedience to allow traffic to be shifted and structural works to proceed. It is very much the exception. 175mm is the minimum thickness of asphalt over a bound layer recommended by Austroads. (Thanks to Ross Keeley, MRWA, for supplying this information in response to my questions)
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Note: Most roads (in terms of total length) are local authority roads Most main roads are sealed Most local roads (in terms of km) are unsealed The average age of main road pavements is 29 years, with the seals having average age of 11 Pavement Design: 22 CIVL4121: years
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