Mastery of Sorrow and Melancholy: Expressivity in Two Chromatic Fantasias by John Dowland

Levi Sheptovitsky
To Musicke bent is my retyred minde And faine would I some song of pleasure sing; But in vaine ioys no comfort now I finde, From heau'nly thoughts all true delight doth spring. Thomas Campion (1567-1620) As it is the task of an orator, not only to decorate a speech with beautiful, lovely and lively words and delightful figures, but also to perform well and to move the emotions and in this he sometimes raises his voice, now lowers it, sometimes speaks with a full voice, now softly and gently: In the same way, it is the task of the musician not only to sing, but to sing artistically and beautifully: and so the listeners heart and emotions are moved, and so the song may reach the goal it was made for. Michael Praetorius (1618, tr. DK)

from 1585 to 1615, falls within the transition from the late Renaissance to the Baroqueone of the most remarkable times in the history of music. This time was characterized by a highly dramatic perception of life and heightened attention to tragic motives. It revealed a sense of uncertainty and sometimes despair produced by the crisis of confidence in the Renaissance ideals. The former optimism became replaced by a stark approach reality, self-doubt and spiritual confusion; the ideal of the harmony of the human being and his endless possibilities gave way to an emphasis on his duality, inconsistency, depravity. The religious uncertainty, soul-searching and social instability were paralleled by artistic unrest and decadence. Artists frequently drew on such themes as the inconstancy of fortune, unstable values of life and almighty fate and chance. They tried to express the discrepancy between shell and content, the clash between the essence of the body and the spirit, and between beauty of the world and the transience of earthly existence. The quintessential notion was that of Mans descent of his heavenly position at the side of God to the mundane earthly condition where the soul is imprisoned in the body. Shakespeare encapsulated this notion in The Merchant of Venice (Act V):
Such harmony is in immortal souls; But, whilst this muddy vesture of decay Doth grossly close it in, we cannot hear it.

OHN DOWLANDS CREATIVE PERIOD,

The Renaissance conception of harmonious structure of the Universe was being revised1 and Europe turned away from a theocentric vision towards one of rationalism. The aesthetics of the new epoch proclaimed that it is disharmony that reigns in the world. Therefore music and art must express various collisions and dissonances. The Renaissance rigidity regarding the rules in music and art was called into question.

Levi Sheptovitsky

The music, of the turn of the century, like the visual arts and literature, became more dramatic and expressive, more personal. It tried to reflect the spiritual life and psychological contrasts of the artist. The idea that music imitates the passions or states of soul goes back to ancient Greece (Aristotle, Politics, 8, 1340a, b; cf. Plato, Laws, II, 665, 668-70, 812C). In his book Rhetoric Aristotle wrote about pathosthe use of strong emotional expressivity as a means to sway an audience. The Renaissance theorists, artists and musicians scoured the ancient treatises in the hope of discovering the lost secrets of the ancient artistic power. Searching for the aesthetic ideal and new expressive devices, Vincenzo Galilei (1533-1591) suggested the renovation of music through a revival of the art of antiquity and all its glories. The new musicians appealed to Pythagoras, Plato, to the esoteric wisdom embodied in Hermetic studies, the Jewish Cabbala and their own contemporary philosophy based on these teachings.2 This was the age of symbol: emblems, numerology, astrology and alchemy were all considered immensely satisfying subjects, and most artists of standing were quite conversant with their basic ideas. Musicians, like other artists, employed formal devices that renovated the musical language. A musical composition was perceived like a well-made speech, intended for trained ears and amenable to analysis according to rhetorical figures.3 This symbolism and rhetoric in music was, in a way, an extension of the Renaissance idea of musica reservata. The growing union between rhetoric and music in the latter part of the 16th century developed in all the major musical centers of Europe. In the early 17th century, following the practice in Germany, the widespread application of rhetoric to music was most clearly evidenced in England.4 The musical expression of affections was not through imitation of natural sounds and movements, but rather by means of melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic formulas or musicalrhetorical figures, which together with symbolism and numerology drawn from Greek culture, were a sign of the new musical lexicon. Not only vocal works with literal texts, but purely instrumental compositions too served as examples of such program-music, where the program was realized not by a development of dramatic events, as in the post-Beethovenian period, but by a comprehensive description of one Affekt. John Dowland was one of the most remarkable composers of this time to achieve such deep expression in his works. He was a genius of sorrow and melancholy, which left their mark on both his instrumental music and his songs: such titles as Lacrim, Flow my tears, Melancholy Galliard, In darkness let me dwell, Semper Dowland semper dolens (Always Dowland, always sorrow), etc., express a brooding emotion and discontent with fortune. Without doubt, the titles of his two chromatic fantasias, Farewell and Forlorn Hope, provide invaluable instructions by as to their emotional intent. The fantasias, probably composed at the turn of the 16th century,5 illustrate the aesthetic and technical features of a new instrumental style and are prominent examples of the artistic expression. These dramatic compositions are masterpieces of invention for the lute, where the most impressive feature is the complexity of the musical language. The polyphonic writing, chromaticism, dissonances, the methodicalness with which the composer exhausts the polyphonic possibilities and the range of the instrument are traits of the rational instrumental style of the epoch. Dowlands ingenious utilization of these techniques make the fantasias outstanding not only in the lute repertory, but in the contemporary solo instrumental music in general. The importance of Dowlands fantasias is so obvious that the possible influence of his compositions on the contemporary keyboard music is discussed in modern musicological studies.6 For the musical expression of the Affekt, the two fantasias introduce a number of special characteristics, the most prominent of which is a new musical lexicon using musical-rhetorical figures.7 One such powerful melodic figure known in esoteric circles was a perfect fourtha highly significant interval in numerology and musical symbolism. When filled in by semitones this figure was termed the chromatic fourth, chromatic tetrachord or chromatic hexachord. Both fantasias take this melodic formula for their theme, which is placed in ascending and descending in Farewell and Forlorn Hope, respectively:

Mastery of Sorrow and Melancholy

Ex. 1

The chromatic fourth, which became one of the popular melodic figures of the end of the 16thbeginning of the 17th century,8 had its prototype in the Greek melodic system, where the tetrachord was the most important structure.9 Ancient musicians thought not so much in terms of octaves as in terms of sequences of fourths, which they called tetrachords. From the middle of the 16th century, musicians and theorists fascinated with Greek music theory sought to apply this to their contemporary music. They experimented with the ancient genera, or three principal types of tetrachords of Greek melodic organization: diatonic, chromatic and enharmonic, each of which spans the interval of a perfect fourth with a different combination of whole, half and quarter tones, as depicted in the following example (from the high tone to the low):
Ex. 2 Diatonic tetrachord (genus) 1 1 Chromatic tetrachord (genus) 1 Enharmonic tetrachord (genus) 2

The Renaissance theorist Nicola Vicentino (1511-c.1576) in his treatise L'antica musica ridotta alla moderna prattica (Rome, 1555) experimented with the Greek genera, and incorporated the chromatic tetrachord into his motet "Hierusalem convertere":
Ex. 3

The earliest known example of a complete chromatic fourth is Calami sonum ferentes, a song for four basses by Cipriano de Rore published in Lassuss opus primum, Il primo libro dovesi contengono madrigali (Antwerp, 1555):10
Ex. 4

From this time on the figure began to appear in many compositions, as it still does today. Side by side with the idea of reincarnation of the ancient music, one of the reasons for its popularity was the contrapuntal and harmonic possibilities that this melodic figure offered the composer.

Levi Sheptovitsky

Chromatic fourths passing between the I and V degrees encourage fugal imitation and provide a chance to develop various counterpoints and attractive harmonies. The chromatic fourth migrated from Rores song of 1555 to English keyboard music some forty years later. Thomas Morley, the earliest writer to discuss the chromatic fourth in his Plain and Easy Introduction (1597), noted that this figure was used as a theme in English keyboard fantasias.11 Dowland is one of the fathers of the large instrumental compositions based on this melodic figure and it is possible that Sweelincks famous Fantasia Crommatica was influenced by Farewell and Forlorn Hope.12 Dowlands fantasias were the point for departure of a long tradition on the Continent that continued throughout the 17th and 18th centuries (e.g., German organ works) and up to the beginning of the 19th century (e.g., Beethovens Thirty two variations). The belief that the melody makes the meaning and emotional content clear to the audience was borrowed from the Greek doctrine of ethos. Peter Williams, in his book devoted to this melodic figure, adduces texts for which the chromatic fourth expresses certain affects in English songs of the period around 1600:13
1. The rising chromatic fourth: a. Enfold thine arms and wring thy wretched hands (Thomas Morley, Come, sorrow, come, from Ayres, 1600) b. Ill sing my faint farewell (Thomas Weelkes, Cease sorrows now, from Madrigals, 1597) c. how strangely Fogo burns (T. Weelkes, The Andalusian merchant, Madrigals, 1600) d. plead my sorrows never ceasing (Thomas Ford, Go, passions, to the cruel fair, Musicke of sundrie kindes, 1607) e. are trusts and darkness (Thomas Campion, Author of light, Ayres, 1613). 2. The falling chromatic fourth: a. construe my meaning (G. Farnaby, from Canzonets, 1598) b. miserere (anonymous, Miserere, Turpyn Lute Book, from the first quarter of the 17th century).

Another eloquent example has been cited by Williams:14

In John Danyels lute-song Can doleful notes (Songs for the Lute, Viol and Voice, 1606), there is a variety of allusion in the lines: No, let chromatic tunes, harsh without ground,
Be sullen music for a tuneless heart, Chromatic tunes most like my passions sound

So the descending chromatic fourth serves several purposes: as pun (chromatic tunes), metaphor (harsh without ground, since chromatics go outside the usual fundamental bass), emblem (be sullen music ... tuneless, so descending, diminished), and again as pun for the last line (now rising).

The best illustration of the expressive content of the chromatic fourth is provided by Dowland himself in his song All ye whom love or fortune hath betraide, where this melodic figure is used for the words Lend ears and tears to me, most hapless man, . The awareness of these associations is evidenced also by a great resemblance between certain sections in Farewell and the song. It is not known which of these works was composed earlier, but in both the intentions of the composer are obvious:
Ex. 5

Mastery of Sorrow and Melancholy

Additional support for these associations is provided by the opening phrase of the fantasia, where the chromatic fourth is combined with the beginning of the opening phrase from Lachrimae (Flow, my tears)the saddest instrumental music:15
Ex. 6

This four-note descending motif linked with Dowlands name was known across Europe as a musical emblem of the tear welling, bursting and falling. The chromatic theme and the diatonic Lachrimae motive have much in commonboth cover the interval of a fourth and reflect the same symbolic meaning. The chromatic themes are of course used with or without melancholic associations and do not always express the above-mentioned emotions, as in Italian madrigals. However, as has been shown above, in English contemporary music the association of the chromatic fourth with sadness, melancholy, etc., has a very strong tradition both in vocal and instrumental music. The choice of the rising chromatic fourth as the theme to illustrate the emotional state of the farewell and the falling chromatic fourth for the forlorn hope was natural for Dowlands epoch. In the above-mentioned Weelkess Cease sorrows now (1597), the rising chromatic fourth is used to reinforce the literal meaning of the last word in the text Ill sing my faint farewell. Dowlands Farewell and Weelkess song were probably composed around the same time and it is impossible to say which of the composers may have been influenced by the other.16 It is also likely that in both the lute solo and the song, the rising chromatic fourth was used independently as a melodic figure whose meaning in the contemporary musical vocabulary corresponded to the literal meaning of the word farewell! The falling chromatic fourth, more submissive and plaintive than the rising, corresponds effectively to the emotional contents of the titleForlorn Hope. From the second half of the 16th century this form of the chromatic fourth was explored in music to illustrate the idea of hopelessness, weeping and deep sorrow, e.g., in Gioseppe Caimos madrigal Piangete valli abbandonate (1564),17 the famous lament bass used in Pursells Dido and Aeneas (1689) and others. Thus, one can see that a chromatically altered melodic line together with the departure from the diatonic had become a sign of the new musical lexicon at the end of the 16th and the 17th century. This musical-rhetorical figure was called the passus duriusculus (hard/harsh step/passage),18 and one familiar and widely used specific form of it is the chromatic fourth.19 The passus duriusculus was used both in vocal and instrumental compositions as a musical effect expressing emotions such as sadness, penitence, melancholy, devotion, sorrow, etc. The composer is searching for a musical means to express emotional states: around the passus duriusculus, are concentrated other musical-rhetorical figures, whose interaction is important for the transmission of the Affekt. One of the most essential of these in both fantasias is the cortaa rhythmic formula and its variations. A three-note motive which represents the falling second with repetition of the second note in the corta rhythmic figure is, after the theme, the most frequently repeated melodic material in the fantasias:
Ex. 7

Levi Sheptovitsky

This motive is characteristic of Dowlands style and can be found in his other fantasias too.20 However, in Farewell and Forlorn Hope it is in the focus of the composers attention. The motive and its variants are elaborated throughout the compositions (Farewell: mm.6, 15, 41, 4445; Forlorn Hope: mm.10, 12, 16).21 A more expressive effect of sadness is achieved when the motive includes a falling semitone:
Ex. 8

The effect is increased even further the motive being emphasized through dissonant chords descending by step in successive repetitions (Farewell: mm.25-26, 33, 49-50). Such a treatment of the motive represents the descensus or catabasis, a musical-rhetorical figure that expresses descending, lowly, or negative images:22
Ex. 9

It is noteworthy that Dowland treated the motive similarly in his In nomine, which also bears the title Farewell!23 Such use of this motive in the similarly named fantasias is not accidental and is clear evidence of its symbolic meaning, allowing one to call it the farewell motive. It is thus natural that this motive is used to conclude the chromatic Farewell:
Ex. 10

The farewell motive assumes a gloomy tinge with the chromatic semitone in the melodic profile:
Ex. 11

Different variations of the farewell motive with and without chromatic semitone are dispersed throughout in the fantasias, providing different shades of the Affekt:

Mastery of Sorrow and Melancholy

Ex. 12

A combination of the farewell motive with its variants appears in both Farewell and Forlorn Hope and thus emphasizes their emotional connection (it is important to note that this combination is absent in Dowlands other fantasias):
Ex. 13

Like the passus duriusculus and corta, other musical-rhetorical figures too are connected with the emotional sphere and thus contribute to the overall Affekt in the fantasias. Farewell demonstrates how a rich use of these figures achieves a very strong expressiveness, as illustrated by the following example:24
Ex. 14 Farewell

Another example begins dramatically with the saltus duriusculus (m.21), balanced by a descending suspiratio accompanied by beautiful melodic figurations moving in short notes:
Ex. 15 Farewell

Dowland goes beyond the borders of the symbolic illustration of the Affekt to produce a tonal unsteadiness and duality that in itself expresses the state of his soul. The chromaticism, the high level of dissonance, the wandering harmonies and dramatic unusual chords spaced in close proximity (e.g., Farewell, mm.29-30; Forlorn Hope, mm.19-27) blur the mode of the compositions. This duality and unsteady characteristic of the harmonization of a chromatic formula, is a part of the general harmonic model; a change of the minor third to the major or inversely within the same harmony emphasizes the smooth sliding between modes with the major or minor third above the final:

Levi Sheptovitsky
Ex. 16

The tonal organization of the fantasias can be explained by the terms floating tonality and atonality as suggested by Lowinsky.25 In Farewell, Dowland avoids strong and distinct closes, using the melodic motion through the cadence (e.g., mm.30-31) and deceptive cadences (e.g., mm.5-6, 8-9, 11-12, 18-19) in order to provide the floating effect: the first repeated note of the ascending chromatic fourth (A or D) provides the V degree to the cadence tone and the second note becomes the root of the VI degree chord, so that the beginning and end of the phrases do not coincide with the beginning and end of the theme:
Ex. 17 Farewell

In some cases the cadence chord is blurred by the accented fourth resolved by the third on the next beat (mm.21, 30), and the final chord (m.53) is not an exception. In other cases, the composer evades the expected chord, and proceeds to a completely foreign and unexpected chord, shifting the former to the next beat or farther (mm.14, 25, 27). The organization and complexity of the contrapuntal treatment of the chromatic fourth are the most impressive feature of the fantasias. The composer has focused on the fresh and bright counterpoints to the theme. Imitation is extensively employed, and Dowland explores contrapuntal devices such as diminution, truncation and stretti. Of the treatments in both fantasias that a contrapuntist would find particularly suitable to the themes, the combining of two statements of tetrachords to form a continuous chromatic scale contributes to the effect of climax.26 In achieving the ideal of antiquity, Dowland did not limit himself by this use of the chromatic tetrachord, but also treated it according to Greek music theory, which attached great importance to the inter-tetrachordical connection. Alluding to the two ways of combining tetrachords in the Greek Greater Perfect System, Dowland employed disjunct and conjunct chromatic tetrachords. The disjunct combination featuring a whole tone between two tetrachords, creating a long continuous line in the range of octave, can be identified in the concluding section of Farewell (mm.39-42) and Forlorn Hope (mm.29-31):
Ex. 18

Mastery of Sorrow and Melancholy

The conjunct tetrachords, where the last note of one is also the first note of the next appear in Forlorn Hope. The running of one chromatic fourth after another to produce a continuous chromatic seventh (mm.32-33) anticipated such bass lines in music over the next three centuries:
Ex. 19

In the final section of Forlorn Hope, Dowland connects the chromatic and diatonic genera of the tetrachord in a majestic wave as if exhausting all the combinations of this melodic figure and the possibilities of the instrument. The ascending part of the wavediatonic octachord d1 d2 (mm.27-29) comprised of two disjunct diatonic tetrachordsbecomes identified with the combination of the two disjunct chromatic tetrachords in Farewell (Ex. 18, mm.39-42, also at the beginning of the concluding section!) which creates a long continuous line exactly in the same range. The descending part of the wave represents a two-and-a-half octave (!) diagonal d2G (mm.29-33) crossing most of the final section:
Ex. 20

The diatonic tetrachord d1c1b flata (Forlorn Hope, m.31) bridging between disjunct and conjunct chromatic tetrachords exactly at the midpoint of the diagonal, is of special interest for its evident identity to the diatonic inversion of the theme in Farewell (mm.31-32, cf. also with Forlorn Hope, m.26) and relation to the Lachrimae signature motive, what allows us to recognize it as Dowlands musical emblem of the tear welling:
Ex. 21

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Dowland highlights his signature-motive by placing it at focal points of the fantasiasat the beginning, at the point of the so-called golden section, a ratio, observed especially in the fine arts, between the two dimensions of a plane figure or the two divisions of a line such that the smaller is to the larger as the larger is to the sum of the two, a ratio of roughly three to five, (Farewell) and at the end (Forlorn Hope); the two latter appearances are exactly at the midpoint of the sectionin the middle section in Farewell, and in the final section in Forlorn Hope, where this point is also the golden section of the wave:
Ex. 22 Farewell Section I (mm.1-21) Section II (mm.21-39) Section III (mm.39-53)

Midpoint of Section II Forlorn Hope Section I (mm.1-12) Section II (mm.12-27)

Golden section of the fantasia

Section III (mm.27-36)

Wave Midpoint of Section III Midpoint of the diagonal & Golden section of the wave

Interestingly, in both fantasias this figure enters in m.31! Does the number 31 have a numerological importance? If do, what does it mean? Neo-Pythagoreanism, with its complex and mystical meanings of numbers, was influential in the late Renaissance and therefore the researcher must consider the numbers codified in the musical compositions as well as in the art and architecture of this period. Side by side with the chromatic fourth, a melodic figure of high significance in musical symbolism, Dowland demonstrated a well worked-out numerological plan: seven entrances of the theme in each exposition of the fantasiasa number of considerable numerological importance, and twenty-one (or three times seven) entrances of the theme in each composition Could the number 31 perhaps provide us with a clue to one of the enigmas connected with the fantasias: the date of their composition? Who knows, maybe thirty-one was Dowland age when he composed them. Based on this assumption, by adding the number 31 to the year of the composers birth1563, we obtain a remarkable result: 1594the year of a painful experience in the composers life. In 1594, Dowlands application for the post of court lutenist to Queen Elizabeth was rejected and he left England to travel abroad. These events could explain the expressive intention and the titles of the fantasias!27 It is also interesting that 1595 coincides with a likely lower limit for the dating of some of the main sources of the fantasias28 as well as the time of appearance of the chromatic fourth in the English keyboard fantasia.29 If one takes into account 1594 as the year of composition of the fantasias, it shifts back the lower limit for the date of composition of the fantasias established by some scholars,30 who based this on the first appearance of chromaticism in Dowlands song All ye whom love or fortune hath betraide, printed in 1597. A section of this song is almost identical to mm.40-43 in Farewell (Ex. 5). Assuming that this song was composed before the year of its appearance in print and that the fantasias could have been composed even earlier,31 1594 can be taken into

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consideration as the real date of composition of the fantasia. Of course this is only assumption and this method of dating the compositions can not be claimed as scientific. Dowlands musical language represents an excellent balance between intellect and feeling, the use of the symbolic dictionary and artistic inspiration in the service to arouse deep emotions. This language, full of rhetorical techniques, reaches the goal it soughtto speak to the human soul as clearly as did the poetry and spoken rhetoric. Thus that the listeners could recognize the specific emotion being expressed equally as well as they could understand the meaning of the spoken word. Intonations, emphases, breathing, length of syllable, all could be transmitted by the music corresponding to the poetry:
the pathetic quality of fantasias, like Dowlands Forlorn Hope and Farewell is broadly appropriate to music itself as the evoker of sadness, Both of Dowlands lute fantasias have something of an unspoken text, though whether of real penitence or sorrow, of amorous or religious sadness, or of anything concrete at all, it is impossible to say.32

Dowland was one of the earliest composers of the new instrumental style to have achieved a strong expression of feelings in musical composition without a literal text. His chromatic fantasias show highly-mannered artistic expression, placing him among the greatest masters of the late 16th and early 17th centuries, together with the eloquent English poets of this period. This master of the musica poetica was a brilliant representative of the world of melancholy and sorrow, a whimsical world that toppled with the next generation. *** One can not ignore the evident relationship between the two pieces. The identical emotional intention, thematic resemblance and employment of the same means of expression, symbolism and numerological plan merge the two fantasias leading to a feeling that they are a pair. Indeed, the composer himself does not disguise it, as would appear from the semantic connection between the titles Farewell and Forlorn Hope.33 A question rises naturally: Did Dowland compose the fantasies as a pair of pieces? To this interesting and in the same time controversial idea I devoted an article34 attempting to prove that the composer created an overall unity of a higher level than in the suite form, thereby anticipating another combination of compositions based on variants of the same themeJ.S.Bachs The Art of Fugue.

The above reassessment of the fantasias has also lead me to a reconsideration of editing principles. Following is my transcription of Farewell and Forlorn Hope from a little known manuscriptthe Cracow Lute Tablature (Lvov 1400/1), in which both fantasias are included.35 The present rendition differs from the transcription of the fantasias in The Collected Lute Music of John Dowland.36 My transcription takes the musical-rhetorical figures into consideration; and the barring, I believe, mirrors the natural movement of the music. The original tablature is mostly preserved, representing the version of the fantasias from the Cracow Lute Tablature without additions from other sources; the obvious errors have been corrected and all changes are enumerated in the footnotes, which give the original reading. My own additional letters to the original tablature are placed in square brackets. In cases where bar lines have been regularized, the position of the original bar line is shown by an asterisk (*), and that of the editors bar line by two asterisks (**), below the tablature.

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1 Giambattista Marino (1569-1625), Dicerie sacre e la Strage de gl'innocenti, a c. di G. Pozzi (Torino, Einaudi, 1960), pp.252-253. 2 3 See for example Jakob Bhme, The Mysterium Magnum (1623). Joachim Burmeister, Musica poetica, 1606).

4. Gregory G. Butler, Music and Rhetoric in Early Seventeenth-Century English Sources, The Musical Quarterly, January, 1980, Vol.LXVI, No.1, p.53. 5. David Stanley Tayler in his The Solo Lute Music of John Dowland (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1992), pp.126-27, suggests 1597-1603/4 as likely lower and upper limits for the date of composition of the chromatic fantasias. 6. Alan Curtis, Sweelincks Keyboard Music (3rd ed.; Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1987), pp.140-143. 7. Arnold Schering, Die Lehre von den musikalischen Figuren im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert, Kirchenmusikalisches Jahrbuch, 21 (1908): 106. 8. The chromatic fourth has interested scholars throughout the last century. Among them are Edward Lowinsky, Tonality and Atonality in Sixteenth-Century Music (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1961); Curtis, Sweelincks Keyboard Music, pp.133-147; Peter F.Williams has written a whole book on this figure The Chromatic Fourth During Four Centuries of Music (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997). 9 Aristoxenus of Tarentum (ca. 330 B.C.), Elements of Harmony, 1.22.5-21 and 2.46.20-22. 10. Williams, The Chromatic Fourth During Four Centuries of Music, p.12. 11. Williams, op. cit., p.23. 12. Curtis, op. cit., Sweelincks Keyboard Music, pp.133-143. 13. Williams, op. cit., pp.25-28. 14. Ibid., p.27. 15. Allan W. Atlas, Renaissance Music (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998), p.690. 16 There are some interesting parallels, probably reflecting direct influences, between the texts of several songs addressed to Sorrow: Weelkess Cease sorrows now, Morleys Come Sorrow, come and Dowlands Sorrow stay; see Christopher Goodwin, A few more discoveries in Elizabethan song, The Lute, xliv (2004), pp.64-65. 17. A fragment of this madrigal is quoted in Williams, op. cit., p.15. 18. Dietrich Bartel, Musica Poetica: Musical-Rhetorical Figures in German Baroque Music (Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 1997), p.357. 19. This musical-rhetorical figure has been the focus of attention by musicologists from the middle of the last century to the present time: J. Mller-Blattau, Die Kompositionslehre H. Schtz in der Fassung seines Schlers Chr. Bernard (Kassel, 1963); Olga Zakharova, Ritorika i zapadnoevropejskaja muzyka XVIIpervoj poloviny XVIII veka: printsypy, prijomy (The Rhetoric and Western European Music of the 17ththe first half of the 18th Centuries) (Moskow: Muzyka, 1983), p.25; Williams, op. cit.; Raymond Monelle, The Sense of Music. Semiotic Essays (Princeton University Press, 2000), pp.73-77, etc. 20. See Diana Poulton and Basil Lam, editors, The Collected Lute Music of John Dowland (London: Faber Music, 1974), pp.20-21, no4 (mm.7-8, 14, 29); p.32, no7 (m.11); pp.223-224, no71 (mm.25, 29, 34, 45-46); p.227, no72 (m.8). 21. The measure numbers in the transcriptions of Farewell and Forlorn Hope refer to bars in the tablature where one bar is equal to a whole note in the transcription. 22. Bartel, Musica Poetica: Musical-Rhetorical Figures in German Baroque Music, p.214. 23. See no4 Farewell (mm.7-8, 29) in Poulton and Lam, The Collected Lute Music of John Dowland, pp.20-21. 24. For the description and explanation of the musical-rhetorical figures see Bartel, op. cit. 25. Lowinsky, Tonality and Atonality in Sixteenth-Century Music. 26. The same device is used in a chromatic fantasia of uncertain ascription to Dowland (mm.69-72) published in Poulton and Lam, op. cit., pp.222-226.

Mastery of Sorrow and Melancholy

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27. Taylor, in op. cit., pp.129-30, assumes that Farewell and Forlorn Hope reflect this major disappointment in the composers life. 'For the suggestion that Dowlands Shoemakers wife might likewise be a case of the composer alluding to his own situation - as the shoemakers wife of all people, should have good shoes, Dowland of all people, deserved a good court position - see Lute News 65 (April 2003), p. 28. 28. Farewell, Ms.Dd.5.78 (III), fols.43v-44, ca.1600, another dating c.1595-1600; Forlorn Hope, Ms.Dd.9.33, fols.16v-17, 1600 febr. 28, another dating before 1597-after 1603. See Diana Poulton, John Dowland (London: Faber and Faber, 1972), p.473. 29. Before 1597, see Williams, op. cit., pp.23, 31. 30. Poulton, John Dowland, pp.233-234; Tayler, op. cit., pp.127-128. 31. A case of the origin of the music of Dowlands song Flow my tears in his lute solo, pavan Lachrim, is known. 32. Williams, op. cit., p.28. 33. Among Dowlands fantasias only three bear a title: the two chromatic fantasias and another Farewell. The latter is not related to the chromatic fantasia of the same name and is an entirely different piece, which is, in fact, an In nomine composed on Gloria tibi Trinitas. See Poulton and Lam, op. cit., pp.20-23. 34. Levi Sheptovitsky, Two Chromatic Fantasias by John Dowland: Were They Composed As a Pair? in the Conference Book of the International Conference in Musicology: Early MusicContext and Ideas (Krakw, 19-21 September 2003), http://www.muzykologia.uj.edu.pl/conference/papers.html The obvious relationship between the two chromatic fantasies has been noted by musicologists, see Poulton, op. cit., pp.114-15; Lowinsky, op. cit., pp.54-61; Anthony Rooley, brochure for John Dowland: Complete Lute Music (The Decca Record D 187D5), p.7; Williams, op. cit., pp.28-30; Curtis, op. cit., pp.140-44; Tayler, op. cit., p.130. However, in my article, for the first time, to the best of my knowledge, a discussion on the two fantasias as a pair of compositions has been included. 35. Three fantasias by John Dowland, including Farewell and Forlorn Hope, that appear in the Cracow Lute Tablature have neither title nor the name of the composer. During a study of the manuscript in the Lvov University library in 1980, I identified these pieces independently. For more information on Dowlands fantasias in the Cracow Lute Tablature and this manuscript, see Levi Sheptovitsky, The Cracow Lute Tablature from the Second Half of the 16th Century: Discussion and Catalogue, Musica Disciplina, XLVIII (1994); and Levi Sheptovitsky, The Cracow Lute Tablature (CLT): Study of the Manuscript and Critical Edition (Ph.D dissertation, Universit Paris-Sorbonne (Paris IV), 2003), 2 vols. I, Study, x, 360 p. II, The Catalogue and Music, xcxix, 350 p. Rsum, 81 p. 36. Poulton and Lam, op. cit., pp.13-19.