REVIEWS OF MODERN

PHYSICS

VOLUM E 30, NUMBER

OCTOBER, 19SS

Attenuation
LzoN KNopozz,

ol: Sma. .. . AIllp. .ituc e Stress %'aves in So..ic s* Institute of Geophysics, IInieersity of California, I os Angeles, California
AND

GoRDoN

J. F. MAcDoNAzn, f Department
1. INTRODUCTION

of Geology and Geophysics, Massachusetts Cambridge, Massachusetts

Institute of Technology,

ABORATORV studies of propagation of stress ~ waves in solids demonstrate that transmission of elastic energy is not perfect, but is accompanied by dissipation of energy even when the waves have small amplitudes. The dissipation results from some imperfection of elasticity within the body and cannot be attributed to loss by radiation, loss due to geometrical eGects or other losses. In a perfectly elastic solid the strain at any point within the solid at any time is a stress at that function solely of the instantaneous point. A pulse or sine wave traveling through a perfectly elastic solid would have a constant energy and an isolated perfectly elastic solid once set into vibration would continue to vibrate indefinitely. Actual materials do not show such behavior; elastic vibrations subside even when the material is electively isolated from its
-

where T is the absolute temperature, 5; is the irreversible entropy generated per unit volume and E is the elastic energy per unit volume stored in the unit volume when the strain is a maximum. AS; is the irreversible entropy generated per stress cycle. The quantity (TAS;) is then the energy dissipated in taking a specimen through a stress cycle. 2m/Q is the ratio of the energy dissipated per cycle to the peak energy stored; 1/Q will be called the speci6c dissipation function. The quantity 1/Q is particularly useful in discussions of experimental data since it does not depend on the detailed mechanism by which the energy is dissipated. The quantity 1/Q has the same meaning as the corresponding familiar expression has in electrical

surroundings. Study of attenuation of stress waves is of particular interest since it demonstrates the failure of Hooke's law even at extremely small strains. Furthermore, experimental data require that deviations from perfect elastic behavior cannot be described by any linear equation with constant coeKcients. Fortunately the deviations from perfectly elastic behavior are small and the usual approximations of elastic wave theory are valid for most materials and most problems. Investigation of attenuation of stress waves can also of the mechanical lead to a better understanding response of solids to external stresses. Such understanding is particularly important in geophysics where most of the information about the mechanical properties of the earth is derived from the study of the transmission of earthquake waves.

circuit theory. Several other measures of attenuation, more or less dependent on the mode of energy loss in the solid, are in common use. If the restoring forces depend on the amplitude of vibration and if the dissipative forces depend on the particle velocity as in a simple damped harmonic oscillator, then the logarithmic decrement is a useful measure of attenuation. The logarithmic decrement 6 is defined as the logarithm of the ratio of the amplitudes of successive crests. A damped harmonic wave function is
u = Ce

I* cos(kx

cot+ P),

(2.2)

where u is the displacement, k the wave number, or the circular frequency and n the attenuation factor. For small damping this solution can be witten as

u=Ce ~" cos(kx co-t+P),

(2.3)

where c is the velocity of propagation of the wave. From the definition, the logarithmic decrement is

2. DESCRIPTION OF ATTENUATION

6 = 2ll co!/M.

(2 4)

There is no general agreement as to the best way of specifying attenuation of stress waves. Several measures of attenuation are in common use. We use a dimensionless measure of dissipation 1/Q, de6ned by
1/Q

The ratio of the energy loss per cycle to the energy stored by a damped wave in a solid is then

(2.5)
where u1 and u2 are successive amplitudes that the specific dissipation function is

= TES;/2m E,

of crests, so

(2 1)

Publication No. 89, Institute of Geophysics, University of California, Los Angeles, California. f Present Address: Institute of Geophysics, University of California.

1/Q

= TAS;/2srE=5/s.

The speci6c dissipation function 1/Q is related to the

ii78

ATTEN UATION
attenuation

OF %AVES IN SOLIDS
This model was independently suggested by Kelvin (1875) and Voigt (1889, 1892). Je6reys (1952), in treating the damping of seismic waves, uses this stressstrain relation terming it the firmoviscous law. He attributes it to a suggestion of Sir J. Larmor. Both the Kelvin-Voigt solid and the Maxwell solid are known as viscoelastic solids. It may be advisable to drop the tclms vlscoelastlc and 6rmovlscous~ both of which have been used in referring to the Kelvin-Voigt solid as well as other solids. Thc Kelvin-Voigt solid is distinguished by t;hc fact that there is. no permanent strain associated with a deformation. The dissipation results from an added stress proportional to the rate of strain; in the Maxwell solid the dissipation results from actual permanent deformation. The specihc dissipation function for small damping in a Kelvin-Voigt solid is
1/Q

coeKcicnt e by
1/Q

= 2nc/ro.

(2 7)

In general the specihc dissipation function depends on

the frequency of oscillation. If the attenuation coefEcient 0, varies as an even power of the frequency then the speci6c dissipation function varies as an odd power of the frequency. The specific dissipation function 1/Q is also a measure of the sharpness of the resonance curve of the solid undergoing forced vibrations. Materials with a low specific dissipation function show a sharp resonance peak.

3.

CLASSICAL MODIFKATIONS

OF HOOKE'8 LAVf

have been made to alter Hookc's of real materials from perfectly elastic bodies. Despite the CGorts of workers in rheology (Reiner, 1949),f. the literature is in a state of confusion regarding the nomenclature of non-Hookean solids. It is useful to review brieQy the principal suggestions regarding deviations from perfect elasticity. Ke restrict the discussion to descriptions of one-dimensional models.

Many attempts

law in order to account for deviations

= &'s/p

(3.5)

Thc speci6c dissipation

fx'cqucncy.

function varies lineax'ly with the frequency in the Kelvin-Voigt model while the attenuation coeKcient depends on the square of the

MRZ%8H Solid

Maxwell (1866) suggested that the total deformation is made up of the sum of two strains, an clastic strain and a permanent strain. In the MaxweH. solid the elastic strain and the rate of permanent strain de~/dt are both proportional to the stress p,
8& =p)

Further models of solids can be constructed using higher order derivatives of the stress and strain. Various possibilities are reviewed by Burgers (1935). A particular combination of interest has the equation of motion $2@ B~Q 83N pp 8@
P

=P

BP

+~i

Bp

BtBp~

g' Bt

(3.6)

(3.1)

The dissipation function is

1/Q =~rl/~+a/rI'~.

de/dt

= p/g,

(3.2)

(3.7)

where p, is an elastic constant and g is a constant having thc dlIncnslons of vlscoslty.

ding

c4
dt

dEy

1 dp
p,

dt

lt

1 p

(3.3)

Thus the rate of total strain de, /dt is determined by the stress and the time rate of change of the stress in a Maxwell solid. Thc specific dlsslpatlon function fol small damping is 1/Q=y/geo. The logarithmic decrement and speci6c dissipation function vary inversely with the frequency while the attenuation coeKcicnt is independent of the frequency.

At high frequencies this Kelvin-Voigt-Maxwell solid would have a specific dissipation function varying as the frequency while at low frequencies the specific dlsslpatloll function varlcs inversely with thc frcqucncy. The transition from one type of frequency dependence to the other is determined by the relative magnitude of the "viscosities" q and q

Boltzmann Suyeryositton

Model

Kelvin-Voigt Solid
Meyer (1874 a, b) suggested a simple modi6cation of Hooke's law in which the stress is the sum of two terms dependirig on the strain and rate of strain

Boltzmann (1876) suggested that the mechanical behavior of a solid was a function of its entire previous history. In the Boltzmann model the CQ'ect of each deformation is supposed independent of the previous or subsequent deformations. The total deformation of the solid is the sum of the partial dcformations. Expressed mathematically the stress at any time is given by

p(t) =

s(r) f(t r)dr,

8) (3.

f References

mill be found

(3.4) p =II, e+sd e/Ch. at the end of this article on p. 1192.

where f(t r) is a memory function such that if the solid is strained by an amount e(r) for a time 5r at a

1180

L. KNOPOFF

AND

G.

J. F.

MxcDOXALD

time r there will be a residual stress )5~ e(r)f(t r acting at time t; Superposition models have not been extensively investigated mainly because of the mathematical diS.culties involved in the integral formulation. Furthermore the physical nature of the memory of the solid is not clear, and certain superposition models lead to violations of the second law of thermodynamics. Unlike the Kelvin-Uoigt, Maxwell, and combination solids which involve linear stress-strain relations, the Boltzmann model can be used to define nonlinear stress-strain relations (Lomnitz, 1957), although Iomnitz' model assumes the absence of permanent deformation upon removal of load. The notion of memory is hardly satisfying in view of the absence of any observations of memory phenomena in the macroscopic behavior of matter.

4. EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE FROM ACOUSTICS AND SEISMOLOGY

The principal result of reviewing the experimental data is that for many solids, other than ferromagnetic materials and certain organic plastics, the speci6c a of frequency dissipation function is independent generalization well known to engineers (Kimball, 1930) and emphasized by Birch (1942) but largely neglected in physical theories of attenuation.
IOOO

The studies of Lindsay (1914) and Kimball and Lovell (1927) were among the first to demonstrate the frequency independence of the speci6c dissipation function. The thorough investigations of Wegel and Walther (1935) on attenuation of both longitudinal and torsional vibrations in solids over a frequency range of 10' to 4.6X10' cps did much to establish the constancy or near constancy of the speci6c dissipation function for nonferromagnetic solids. Their data on lead, copper, and glass are reproduced in Fig. 1 in which the hysteresis constant, which is directly proportional to the speci6c dissipation function, is plotted against frequency. Wegel and Kalther did not obtain this constancy in ferromagnetic materials as is illustrated in Fig. 2. Recent work (Bozorth, 1951) substantiates materials. the abnormal behavior of ferromagnetic Stress waves in ferromagnetic solids can produce motions of gneiss domain boundaries and can induce microeddy currents (Bozorth); these losses are superimposed on losses due to the departure of the solid from perfect elasticity. Gemant and Jackson (1937) demonstrated that in the frequency range of 0.3 to 10 cps ebonite, quartz, wood, and glass all show constant energy loss per cycle. Birch and Bancroft's (1938) study of the Quincy granite is of particular interest to geophysics. The
loo

8- LEAD
C
D

A- LEAD Ilt.

- GLASS (SODA

IRI

LIME)

"COPPER

LONGITUDINAL

TORS IONA L

4
(
o
(1

o IOO
so

g
8 s~~

LL,

6
~

CM

IX
X

8t)

~4

Av

CP

V
I

I:. O w
ICO

ep~yg

w
'

~~

&

&

~~

EO

~A~

8- DRILL
C

A- NICKEL

- DRILL

ROD(UNANNEALED)
ROD (ANNEALED)
LONGITUDINAL

TORSIONAL

IO'

IO4 FREQUENCY

(c.p. l. )

IO4 FREQUENCY

IO~

(c.p. s. )

Fn. 1. Hysteretic constant (proportional to specific dissipation after Wegel and materials function} for nonferromagnetic Walther (1935).

Pie. 2. Hysteretic constant (proportional to specific dissipation after Wegel and Walther function) for ferromagnetic materials

(&935}.

ATTEN UAT I ON OF
l
I

WA

VES

I N

SOLI DS

1181

AMHERST

SANDSTONE

C-I- I 720

o
~ 4 R
lal
LLJ

790

012
VYCOR

COR NING

0 4
O

cf /

og

FUSE D Sl OR t A'MERSIL)

/ /
/

ls!

O O
W

K3
CO

2
I

/
/

r/
/
.

/ ~~

rr

WAtK&

FUSED

S&

~%

~ ~

r
4

il

IOOO

2000
FREQUENCY

tcps)

3000

4000,

'8

.IO
.

FREQUENCY'

I2 l4 ( MEGACYCLES)

16

l8

20

FIG. 3. Logarithmic decrement (proportional to specific dissipation after Born (1941). function) for dry and wet sandstone

Fxo. 4. Attenuation factor for silicate glasses after Mason (1949).

speci6c dissipation function for frequencies ranging from 140 to 4500 cps was found to be independent of frequency for longitudinal, Qexural and torsional modes of vibration. Born's (1941) investigation of dry and water-saturated sandstone demonstrates the diferent attenuation properties of solids and liquids. The logarithmic decrement of dry sandstone is independent of frequency in 4000 cps, while the the frequency range of 1000 decrement of water saturated sandstone increases rapidly with frequency indicating the presence of a viscous effect (Fig. 3). Bruckshaw and Mahanta (1955) on rocks to lower extended Born's measurements frequencies. They find that the speci6c dissipation function is independent of frequency for sandstone, oolitic and shelly limestone, granite, dolerite, and diorite for the frequency range 40 to 120 cps. Mason and McSkimin (1947) investigated attenuation of sound in aluminum and glasses in the frequency 15 range 2 Mc. The attenuation coefficient was found to vary linearly with frequency in the glasses. The attenuation in aluminum could be represented as the sum of a linear and a fourth power term in the frequency. The fourth power loss is due to Rayleigh scattering. The eGect of scattering has also been treated by Roney (1950) and Mason (1956). These authors conclude that scattering can become important when the grain size is much smaller than the wavelength but the total loss due to scattering is usually small. Mason's (1950) data on glasses in the frequency range of 4 to 20 Mc are shown in Fig. 4.II Several other studies in recent years have also shown that the speci6c dissipation function is independent or of frequency at high frevery nearly independent quencies: Roth's (1948) measurements on magnesium; Liicke's (1956) measurements on copper, zinc, aluminum, and potassium chloride.
$ Dr. W. P. Mason in a personal communication {1957)informs us that he considers the attenuation coefBcient of fused Si02 to be a third of that shown in Fig. 4, but that the data on the other glasses are correct.

The data for attenuation of stress waves in the earth are not nearly as good as the laboratory data. Ewing and Press (1954) analyzed the attenuation characteristics of mantle Rayleigh waves generated by the Kamchatka earthquake of 1952 and found a speci6c dissipation function for the earth's mantle of about 2 to 3&10 '. The Rayleigh waves have a period of several minutes, yet the indicated speci6c dissipation function is the same as that of the Quincy granite as studied by Birch and Bancroft at much higher frequencies (140-4500 cps). Ewing and Press conclude that the specific dissipation function for the mantle must be frequency independent over a wide frequency range. Sato (personal communication) has measured the absorption of the crustal low velocity channel phase IJQ from the Kamchatka earthquake of 1952 and the New Guinea earthquake of 1933 and obtains a specific dissipation function of 8 to 10X10 ' in the period range 50 to 250 sec. McDonal et at. (1958) studied the attenuation of and transverse waves generated in the longitudinal upper crust of the earth by explosions. They find a frequency independent speci6c dissipation function in the frequency range 100 to 500 cps for both shear and compressional waves. The attenuation coeKcient of compressional waves in the Pierre shale formation is plotted as a function of frequency in Fig. 5. Similar results have been obtained by Collins and Lee (1956) in analyses of explosion data. Figure 6 shows that the attenuation coefficient is linear in frequency for the frequency range 100 to 1000 cps. Relatively little has been done on the amplitude dependence of the specific dissipation function. Usually the magnitude of the strain is not reported, though the high-frequency experiments very likely are carried out at small amplitudes. Mason (1956) investigated the attenuation in aluminum as a function of amplitude and found that in the strain range 10 ' to 10 ' the attenuation factor is independent of amplitude. For ' strains greater than 10 there is a dependence of the

L. KNOPOFF

AND

G.

J. F.
II

MxcDONALD
.I2

I20

0' .IO

a O
O

IL

Pr III

.08
.06

80
IX LLI
~~

VERTICAL GOMPRESSIONAL
WAVES

nj

40

04

c)

o o

PAIRS OF RADIAL
DISTAMCES

0
~
O

02
200

(FEET) a 20 20 a 27.5 a 2T5

IO IO

300
FREQUENCY

400 (c.p. s.)

500

600

fI

11 MEGATIVE)

200

400

600

800

IOOO

200

FREQUENCY

tc ps)

FIG. 5. Attenuation factor for compressional waves in the Pierre Shale after McDonal et al. (1958).

FIG. 6. Attenuation factor for compressional waves in the Pottsville Sandstone after Collins and Lee (1956).

kp

specific dissipation function upon the strain amplitude. In summary, the experimental data both from laboratory acoustics and from experimental and observational seismology strongly indicate that the specific dissipation function for inorganic, nonferromagnetic solids is very nearly independent of frequency over a frequency range of 1X10 ' to 1X10' cps, although no single substance has been investigated over this entire frequency spectrum. We have not included plastics and waxes in our discussion since their attenuation characteristics are apparently very closely related to their molecular structures and complicated resonance eBects in the frequency range under discussion are common in these organic materials. Zener's (1948) analysis of relaxation phenomena in solids emphasizes that the attenuation of stress waves in solids may show a varied frequency spectrum with marked absorption peaks. Many metals, glasses, and silicates apparently do not demonstrate this complicated behavior.

As a first approximation

we set

= cd/c,

(5.4)
in the absence of any

where ko is the wave number

attenuation

and obtain

cd/c+-' ki

' , mn ai+ncd"+"( P

1)"c' (5.5)

".

The imaginary part of k has a coefficient of ~ +n '. The imaginary parts of k& correspond to odd values of 222+n; hence Imki is a function of even powers of the frequency. Imk& is just the attenuation coefFicient; to a first approximation the attenuation coefficient is a function of even powers of the frequency while the specific dissipation function is a function of odd powers of the frequency. In general if

k, =cd/c+Q
then the
1
Cd

cI

cd2~'+I

pp
1C1

cd2&

(5.6)

5. LINEAR THEORIES OF ATTENUATION

linear differential We consider a one-dimensional a equation with constant coefIicients representing perturbation of the wave equation

(s+1)th

approximation
Im+n(
221a

is given by

/C+

pa +1 p p

1)n~m+n
Im+n(

2C2 m 1)n&m+n

82N

B~N

QP

Qg

+ tnn a P QgmQfn

Q fR+nl

2&) X {CI,Cd2& '+iP, ~

(5.7).

(5 1)

is the displacement, c is the velocity of the where unperturbed wave and a are real constant coeKcients. Experimental values of the specific dissipation function are small for most solids. Hence the final term of this equation is a perturbation upon the wave propagation terms. Assuming a solution of the form,

By inspection Imk, +& involves the frequency raised to an even power. By induction it follows that, to any a perturbed linear wave degree of approximation,
equation with constant coefficients will lead to an attenuation coefFicient depending on an even power of the frequency. In a similar way the characteristic equation can be expanded in an infinite series (instead of considering only the first two terms) and the theorem proved by identical reasoning. If the relation between stress and strain is such that a linear expression exists interrelating stress, strain and all their derivatives with respect to time and space (linear stress-strain relationship) then the equation of motion will be a linear partial difI'erential equation with constant coefBcients. Hence no model based on a linear

g I

gi(kx-cs t)

(5 2)

the wave number k is approximately

I'm+nkm

k= cd/c+-', g

( ~) n

(5.3)

m, n

ATTEN UAT

I ON

OF WA VES

IN

SOLI DS
equation as

ii83

stress-strain relation can account for the experimental observation that real solids have a constant specific function, 1/Q. Introducing a nonlinear dissipation model, the nonlinearity, however, cannot be associated with the amplitude since the evidence strongly suggests that for small strains the specific dissipation function is independent of amplitude; the nonlinearity must involve the derivatives of the strain. The description of wave propagation in a dissipative material of the type here considered cannot be given in terms of frequency dependent coeKcients of viscosity. This description violates the Paley-Wiener criterion for physically realizable filters and would require infinite delays between input and output. It is certainly possible to approximate a linear function of a variable by a sum of even powers of the variable provided the approximation is taken over a limited range of the variable. Thus, over a limited frequency range, the diGerential equation describing the attenuation characteristics of wave motion in solids can be written with two or more perturbation terms. However, the approximation is optimized when there is a unique relation among the coeflicients of the perturbation term. We can summarize the requirements that a linear stress-strain relation will result in a specific as of frequency function independent dissipation follows: two or more competing linear dissipative processes must occur; the correct contribution from among these processes obtain in a given material to attenuation coeKcient; the yield the appropriate processes contribute in the same ratio in a wide variety of materials. In view of the experimental evidence it is unreasonable to suppose that actual materials fulfill these requirements. It is more probable that the unusual nature of acoustic dissipation can be attributed to a single nonlinear mechanism and to make any needed approximation by expanding the nonlinearity in a partial sum of linear terms.

can write the momentum

p8'y'/Bt2=8p

/By, ,

(6.1)

where y' are the Cartesian components of the position vector, p, ' are the components of the stress tensor, and p is the density, taken as constant for infinitesimal deformations. The summation convention is used throughout. The symbols h, i, j, 1, m, and e are reserved for tensor indices. Although we consider explicitly only a cartesian space the results may easily be generalized to other geometries by considering tensors such as p, ' and y' as mixed tensors, and remembering that these and covariant mixed tensor s have contravariant properties. The components of the position vector of a given point in the solid can be written as

y'(t) =yo'+e()'(t)+e'(t),

(6.2)

where yo' is the position vector at some initial time to, N(~' is the vector representing the permanent or nonrecoverable displacement, and u' is the vector representing the elastic displacement. Th. e elastic displacement is the difference between the total displacement and the permanent displacement. The elastic strain tensor e is defined in terms of by

I'

t'Be'
2
E eely'

Be; q
fly,

(6.3)

The total rate of deformation by the tensor d, ',

of the solid is described

d. i

t'
(

+ &8y&

Bv'

85; )
8y;&

(6.4)

6. THEORY OF NONLINEAR PERMANENT

DEFORMATION
we are guided

where v' is the total velocity vector. If there is no permanent deformation, I()' is equal to zero for all times and the total rate of deformation d is equal to the rate of elastic strain de /dt. If, in addition to the elastic strain, there is a permanent strain, then the total rate of deformation is

In the construction of a suitable macroscopic theory to a large extent by Eckart's (1948)

=c,'+de, '/dt,

(6.5)

fundamental thermodynamic analysis of the problems of deformation. Eckart, Bridgman (1950), and more that thermorecently Synge (1955) demonstrate dynamics, when applied to problems of deformation, provides a powerful tool that has as yet not been properly exploited. The approach used here is strictly that of classical physics in that the theory is developed solely in terms of the observable quantities: mass, elasticity, permanent deformation, and temperature. A properly developed macroscopic theory of macroscopic phenomena is an essential prerequisite to the detailed analysis of the problem in terms of unobservable microscopic quantities. We assume a homogeneous isotropic solid. Since we are considering only infinitesimal displacements we

where c is a measure of the rate of permanent deformation. This generalization of Maxwell's description of deformation is due to Eckart. The elastic strain e is thus measured from a changing reference state where the reference state is defined as the geometric configuration to which the body returns on the release of external (measurable) stresses. This definition of elastic strain equates the elastic strain with the recoverable strain regardless of the time needed for the recovery. In order to proceed from the kinematic to the dynamic aspects of the problem we must assume some dependence of c,' and e on the external stress. Since we are dealing with infinitesimal total displacements, we assume that the restoring stress is proportional to

L, KNO. POFF
the elastic strain,

AN D

G.

J. F.

MxcDONALD

particular form of c that we investigate in detail is

r '=XIIe "8 '+2fsse

nkvd

TB)'.

(6.6)

is the elastic stress tensor, X~ and p, g are elastic constants, 0, is the linear coeKcient of thermal expansion and k is the adiabatic bulk modulus. The temperature T at any point is taken as

+2 p. +)p, +)I. f
(

Il'

Is' r))
)
&
~

(6.12)

T = Ts+hT,
where To is the uniform reference state.

(6.7)
of the initial

temperature

In addition to the elastic stress in the body we assume that there is a stress due to viscous resistance. The total stress tensor p, ' is then made up of the restoring elastic stress plus an added stress due to viscous resistance. In analogy with classical liquid viscosity the additional stress is taken to be linearly proportional to the total rate of deformation so that the stress tensor is

where X, and p. are constants having the dimensions of inverse viscosity: stress ' time ', X., )j) , and )?. are constants having the dimensions of stress '. If these last four constants vanish, c,' defines a Maxwell solid. In obtaining an equation in temperature we use the equation of continuity of entropy and assume that the physical parameters needed to describe the system before deformation are sufhcient to describe the system after the deformation has taken place. The equation of contlnulty of elltl'opy (Brldgman, 1949) ls

l.

p)''=r))+X, d
where X, and
p,

o,'+2pd)',

(6.8)
whe

(6.13)
& is the entropy per unit mass, dS~/df is the irreversible entropy created per unit volume per unit time (which by the second law must be positive), and )7* is the heat fiux vector. The operator d/dt indicates the derivative following the motion of the solid

constants having the dimensions of viscosity. The total stress in the body in equilibrium with external surface forces is then

are

p,'=(Awe"+X.d

nkhT)5 + 2pze'+2fs

d'

(6 9)

assumed that e represents the total strain, then the foregoing equation describes a Kelvin-Voigt solid with an attenuation to the coefficient proportional square of the frequency provided the thermal conductivity of the material is zero. In the Maxwell solid, the rate of permanent deformation c, is assumed linearly proportional to the elastic stress v . A more general suggestion is that the rate of permanent deformation is given by

If it be

I) )

(6.14)

'

The heat is assumed to diffuse solely by conduction; we neglect radiational heat losses

c;

=g(I, )Is,I, ; I,')Il', Is')r)")

= E

T
(6.15)

(6.10)

Bgs

where I(~ is the rth invariant of the elastic stress tensor and I~~' is the rth invariant of the time rate of change of the elastic stress tensor ~~:
IQ

E is the constant conductivity for the isotropic material. The change of entropy of the solid with time is
Tp
d$ pC, dT +knT de~ =
dh

~tS?l
d7- s
dh

~'5

+g

3f

As''&

l&.m

?I,

(6.16)

d7-m d7. n

2!
d7?,
Asj

(611)
dh
d7'&'

where C, is the specihc heat at constant strain. The equation of continuity of entropy now takes the form

dh

dT
pC,
dh

+knT

8e
Bh

E =E
O'T

8p'Bp'

-+
81" BT '

T 8$' Bp'.

dS;

. (6.17)

3~

dh

dh

dh

Since the dissipative behavior of solids is independent of amplitude at low amplitude we require thatgthe function g(II,I,If,l') be of zeroth order in the stress. A
Kronecker delta symbol S) s" is the generalized [] The (Sokolnikoff, 1951). In particular ii ')' is zero if i= z)=N or if the set is not the set me. In the other cases 8 '&'equals +j. or according as ew is an even or odd permutation of i

-1 ij

j,

j.

The irreversible entropy generated by the conductive transfer of heat is (E/T') (BT/By") (BT/By; ) so that the equation of continuity of entropy can be put in a convenient form if the energy wasted by mechanical processes can be evaluated. The mechanically wasted work is the total work done on the system minus the recoverable work. The rate at which recoverable or elastic work is done per unit

ATTEN
volume is

UAT

ON

OF WA VES

IN

SOLI DS
vanish are

Sufhcient conditions that c

(6.18)
which, in terms of the rate of permanent total rate of deformation, is

3X, = 2p3x,=

2$

2)t(6.24) 3f,=

Kith these conditions

strain and

the rate of permanent deformation is determined by the elastic stress, the rate of change of the elastic stress and three constants
c

r'(d &) c
&

(6.19)

The rate of total work done on a unit volume is the product of the total stress tensor and the total rate of deformation. The mechanically wasted energy is

y, +x,

I)' I2') II, l' (2r +ri,

t

', r

8j-).

(6.25)

Ke are now in a position to write down the equations in displacements and temperature that describe a solid having a varying rate of permanent deformation. The stress equations gives the equations of motion as
B~N'

The total irreversible entropy produced by mechanical

and. thermal processes is then

=Xg

Be
f')''+--2ps

Be~'

Bd

~
l)

+X
+2@.

'

d8;E BT BT = +(X,d"bj+2pd )d,

dt

&,

T By'By

+g(I, I,,

'),

Bd~'

nkvd

T,

(6.26)

(6.21)

Bp'p

Bys

and this must be zero or positive for a natural process. The sufhcient conditions for the irreversible entropy to be positive are E&0, 3X+2@, 0, p. &0, g(I(,),I(,)') &0. & The last condition is of particular interest since this places limits on the nature of the scalar function g, If we write g in the form,

where I,' is the total displacement vector and is the sum of the permanent displacement and recoverable displacement

.I' = Q(&) '+Q'.

(6.2"/)

g= )).+x. +&
Ig

I~
I

$-

& Im

The three equations of motion involve seven quantities: three total displacements, three elastic displacements, and the temperature. The total displacement vector is related to the elastic displacement by the equations
c A+
dt

+2

I,' (I ).+4.I, +n. &I~)

I

r~'

(622)

(6.28)

we see that conditions sufhcient for g to be positive are

c"=g(I() I()')r~*.
The temperature
equation of continuity of entropy

(6.29)

3X,+2p. &0,

3x.+2/. &0, 3t.+2)).&0,

n. &o

follows from the equation

provided we take the positive signed square root and. place absolute value signs about the ratio of the invariants Ig' and Ig. The equation determining the rate of permanent deformation is further simphhed on assuming that the application of a hydrostatic pressure results only in elastic deformation. Laboratory studies on homogeneous materials (3ri(lgman, 1949) indicate that uniform compression does not result in permanent deformation. With this assumption the rate of permanent deformation for uniform compression c must vanish.

BT
pC,
Bt

BT =E+P,
By'By;

+2y'd )d;& +cjr,

B6~

;&'
(6.30)

knT
Bt

C. BT(-)'. p
By'

c-=3 ),+x.
+2

I)' (Im') l +f,

I)

Im

I&'

&~+4"

'I,

~I2'q l
+r)~l
I

r~"=0 (6 23)

Figure 7 schematically illustrates the stress-strain relations for a solid obeying the foregoing equations and undergoing cychc stress excitation. The elastic response of the sohd is linear with elastic stress LFig. 7(a)) but the total strain-total stress diagram /Fig. 7 (b)), illustrates the hysteretic behavior of the solid. The loop does not close on itself because of the permanent deformation, though for actual solids the amount of permanent deformation is much smaller than that schematically indicated. The dimple in the hysteresis loop at zero stress results from the fact that the proposed model has a resistance to permanent deformation inversely proportional to the elastic strain but directly

L. KNQPOFF
stress

AND

G.

J. F.

MAcDONALD

stress

J,

lastlc
strain

total strain

a.
stress
J,

where the nonlinear terms result from taking the positive signed square root of the ratio of I2' to I2. The equation of motion can be written using one of the three types of displacements as the only dependent variable. Since the permanent displacement is small in comparison to the elastic displacement for low attenuation factors, we usc the elastic displacement. The equation of motion in terms of the elasti~ displacement
lS

stress

tj

8Q
total strain

1 8Q

ciociic
strain

By By'

V,

2p. + p p. +2p. Bt2 8Qy'

P,

83Q

BQ

82Q

tis

&y'

= 2q, p
C.

8~S

Bt

8$8$

8Q 2g.p. 82 sgl

82Q

8$.

sgl
Bp'8t

8p

,7.4) ( 8$
8Q

I'IG. 7. Stress-strain diagrams for cyclic stresses applied to (a) a perfectly elastic solid, (b) a solid exhibiting nonlinear permanent deformation, (c) a Maxwell-Kelvin-Voigt solid, and (d) a Kelvin-Voigt solid.

where V, is the elastic wave velocity

V. = (ps/p)'.
The terms

(7.5)

proportional to the rate of elastic strain. This behavior which introduces a nonlinear response of the solid distinguishes this solid from the Maxwell-Kelvin-Voigt sohd whose hysteresis loop is illustrated in Fig. 7 (c) . The Kelvin-Voigt solid shows no permanent deformation so the hysteresis loop closes on itself as shown in Fig.

7(d).
7. QUASI-HARMONIC
DIMENSIONAL

SOLUTIONS TO THE ONEW'AVE EQUATIONS

on the left-hand side of Eq. (7.4) are linear and represent a combined Kelvin-Voigt-Maxwell solid. The right-hand side introduces the nonlinearity into the equation. The terms with coeKcients p, p, and q, p, represent interactions between the two mechanisms of the Kelvin-Voigt-Maxwell type of loss and the permanent deformation type of loss. H these two processes separately lead to small losses then the interactions will bc cxtlcmely small Rnd wc CRn 'wI'ltc the equation of motion as

Shear Wave
In order to investigate the shear mode, we consider a
plane wave propagating placcments
Q

in the y' direction with disQ

,
8~Q

j. 82Q

P~

83S
2pcp

8Q

=S)

=Q

=0.

(7.i)

=2g.p
BI

82S

8/8 j

sgn

BS .

(7.6)

The equation of motion is given by

B~Q

82Q

8~Q

=pa
BP

8y'

+pc

BQy'

(7 2)

if thc nonlinear term is taken Rs small in comparison with the elastic wave propagation terms, a quasiharmonic solution can be obtained using the method of Kryloff and Bogoliuboff (Minorsky, i947}. We assume a solution of the form

Since the equation describes a shear wave of inhnitesimal amplitude the temperature does not appear explicitly in the equation. If the elastic displacement this equation would were the total displacement describe shear wave propagation in a Kelvin-Voigt solid. The elastic displacement Q is related to the total displacement by

I=a(t) sin(ky cct+p(t}) =g sine,

with
8N/Bt

= Ma(t)

cos(ky

ceo cct+ck(t)) = cosg,

(7.g)

BS
ByBt

BQ~~

BS "+By&I

ByBf

BS
8/83

BS =2ps pc +'itc
Bp

BS
BYRD

'

BS
Sg'+

(73)

8p

and consider the amplitude u and phase @ as slowly varying functions of time. The phase factor 0 is dined ln thc two plcccdlng cquRtlons; thc wRvc nuIDbeI' k ls derived from the unperturbed wave velocity k=rv/V. . We obtain two equations in the amplitude a and phase p by substituting the assumed solution into the wave equation and using the expression for the velocity as the second equation. The equation in the amplitude is

ATTEN UAT I ON OF
then

WA

VES

IN

SOLIDS

ii87

which can also be written

1dS cos'8 =
e
dt

A exp .
&vP+2p, p V,P+2g, &op V,P tan8
~

p, co~ (
(p@ 2V,
2

+p,pV,
~y

Py
p, @

1 pVQ sin8 cos8 2g,

cos8i
i

(7.9)

+~,pppV.
The attenuation

sin(ky

cot+Pp).

(7 17)

sin8

tan8~

which to the erst order in

ppand

g, is

1dS p, cos'8+ 2p, p V ' cos'8 =~'

u dt
p@

+2g.ppp V,' cos'8

tan8

. (7.10)

To the same degree of approximation,

the phase angle is

the equation in

sin8 cos8+2p, =
Py
pp'

p VP sin8 cos8

dt

p@

factor contains terms of zero, erst, and second power in the frequency. The zeroth- and second-order terms result from the linear dissipation terms in the wave equation and represent attenuation according to the Maxwell and Kelvin-Voigt solids respectively. The term linear in the frequency results from the nonlinear term in the wave equation coming from the stress and strain rate dependence of the rate of permanent deformation. The attenuation coefficient is independent of the initial amplitude of the motion. The attenuation coefhcient of the solid proposed here will be linear in frequency provided the frequency is within the limits s' pc %cps
2 gc
&ge

+2g, pVPa&

sin8 cos8~ tan8~.

(7.11)

The left-hand sides of the amplitude and phase equations are functions only of time. The right-hand sides are functions of both y and t. This incompatibility can be resolved only if the right-hand sides are made independent of y. This is accomplished by stating that (da/dt)/c and dp/dt are slowly varying functions of time, and averaging the right-hand sides over a complete wavelength of the oscillations. When this is done, the right-hand sides become independent of t as well as of y.

To this approximation,
(1/o)da/Ch

=Ep,

(7.12)

d$/le
and
u =He~0'

= Pp)
P =I'Ot

(7.13)
(7.14)

I'0 vanishes since the function on the right-hand side of the equation for dP/dt is odd. The phase angle to a 6rst approximation is constant. The amplitude decreases with time since
Ep =
GP

p@ 2

+pp. VPP+~ V, '. ,(op

7l

(7.15)

The solution of the wave equation is

I=

A exp

(Pp pV, ' +p,

CO
~

(ps

+~.

a&p

V,' t sin(ky
~

&ot+g),

(7.16)

For frequencies between the two limits given the solid has an attenuation coefBcient depending linearly on frequency. At higher frequencies the attenuation coeKcient depends on the square of the frequency and at lower frequencies the attenuation coeKcient is the experiindependent of frequency. Unfortunately mental data are insuKcient to allow evaluation of the needed constants but we can get a rough order of magnitude. The specific dissipation function in the linear region is 1/Q=2q. ps/pr. The specific dissipation function for silicates is of the order of 2X10 ', while px, from velocity measurements (Birch), is of the order of 3 X 10 d ' cm . Thus pc 10 cm dyne There is some evidence (Mason, personal communication, 1957) that glasses begin to show a true viscous attenuation with an attenuation coeflicient depending on the square of the frequency at frequencies on the order of 20 to 30 Mc. For silicates the viscosity p, characterizing the Kelvin-Voigt solid then has as an upper limit the value 1.0 d sec cm '. There is no significant laboratory data that will allow an estimate of p. , the constant characterizing the Maxwell solid. Thus an estimate of the lower limit of frequency for the linear attenuation cannot be obtained from present laboratory data. Haskell (1935, 1936), in a study of post-glacial rebound, estimates that the viscosity of the upper layers of the earth is on the order of 10~ d sec cm 2 for deformations having a time constant of 10' years. If we identify this viscosity with the quantity 1/p, then the lower circular frequency limit for a frequency independent speciac dissipation function is of the order of 2X10 ' sec '. This cuto6 frequency corresponds to a period of 10 years,

L. KNOPOFF
Longitudinal
q

AND

G.

J. F.

MxcDONALD

Waves

the y' direction with displacements are

O' N

'.

P,
B~N

, e'=&8=0, e'=st
BT
By

'

dissipation functions for longitudinal and transverse waves should yield information concerning the relative magnitudes of the constants and q, :

f,

(1/Q)n

BP

= (As+2)
B s(&)

B~s

nk + (X,+2@)By~Bt By~

(7.23)

(1/Q).
These data are not extensive but apparently the two constants are of the same order of magnitude (Birch and Bancroft; Wegel and Walther).

ca'=

(&.+2l.)+(X.+2k.)
B2Q

(7
BQ BARBS By

1 8)

sge
ByBt

BS (As+ 2) ,
By

8. PROPAGATION OF PLANE PULSES

BT
Bt

BIT
By'

+(~ +2p )
X
BS BQ()
By ByBt

f
I

B'u

)'
I

BtBy ~

+(~~+2)

BQ
knT

pC,

.(7.19)
By Bt

ByBt

Neglecting the interaction terms between viscosity and permanent deformation and the thermal terms, the solution for these equations may be quasi-harmonic written as

u=A exp-

X+2@oP

Xz+2 2V,

+-:(&. 2p.)p V +
sin( ky &et+$0),

+ (X,+2/, )
where

pVy

(7.20) (7.21)

V~ = D7 ~+2)/p]'

factor is of the same form as that for shear waves with terms depending upon the zeroth, first, and second powers of the frequency. For the case of a material which exibits no permanent strain when subjected to a hydrostatic pressure, the equation of motion is
The attenuation

e=

exp-

X, +2@ram

In many applications of elastic wave theory the critical problem is the description of the transmission of a pulse through a slightly dissipative solid. The pulse problem is far more complicated than the treatment of the propagation of a sine wave since the pulse can be approximated only by a very large number of harmonic terms. Furthermore, the pulse shape may be such that the degree of approximation possible through a harmonic analysis is insufhcient to characterize the interaction of the discontinuous elements of the pulse with the nonlinear properties of the solid. In particular, we might expect a behavior similar to that encountered in shock wave phenomena where the essential nonlinearities in the equation of motion control the form of the disturbance propagated. The theory of pulse propagation through a material such as that discussed in the previous sections depends upon the satisfactory solution of a nonlinear partial diGerential equation. Nonlinear partial differential equations cannot be solved, for pulse excitation, by standard transform methods such as the Fourier or Laplace transform because these transforms can only be taken of linear operators. In order to overcome this difhculty, two procedures are available. Both involve solving a set of linearized equations. In the erst method we state that to the degree of approximation given by the linearization procedure of KryloG and BogoliuboG, the solution to the differential equation
1

.X~+2pg

2V~

+st.pV&
By'

c'

Btm

= 2g.p Bc/Bt (
~

sgee)

(8.1)

+ f. 3
The attenuation

rap

n(ky ~t+&0). (7.22) Vy si

waves is

is, by the preceding section

coeKcient for longitudinal linear in frequency in the range

e(y, a&) = eo(exp

If this result is integrated over frequency, for the case

of an initial value problem of a localized pulse of stress, the strain as a function of y and t is (Knopo8, 1956)
'oc(y/2Q)
e(y, t)

/P. (a~a p.
2

(&x+2)'
X+2p,

3s

At higher frequencies the longitudinal wave attenuates as in a Kelvin-Voigt solid, at lower frequencies as in a
Maxwell solid. Experimental

data giving the ratios of the specific

for large values of the quantity Q.

=;
pc 2q,
~ ~

~ y/s) (expi(ky

cA))

( 8.

2).

ct)'+(y/2Q)') ~((y

1/Q= 2g,pc'/m

(8.3)

ATTENUATION
The solution to the differential equation

OF WA VES
where
rt~

IN

SOLI DS
rtp

ii89

and

are given in (8.11). If we solve Eq.

B"
By'

B"

c' Bt'

B Sgtl6

(8.15) for l,
I'

Qc' Bt

Bt

(8.4)

f (~, ~)

=~+
Q

l-' ~)+I (~,

EQi
I

f-

(~,~)

(8.16)

for pulse excitation will be given if p is the strain function. We assume P) 0 for all y, t. Then (8.4) reduces to
f26

Substituting the above equations into Eq. (8.7) and retaining terms of order (~/Q)' we obtain

1 82g

g2~

By'

c' BP

Qc' BP

SgSBt

(8.5)

Vp)=0,

(8.17) (8.18)

sgN(opt Vgp Vp),

-',

where 1/Q is assumed small. The method of Lighthill (1949), which we apply here, assumes that the righthand side of Eq. (8.5) becomes important in the

V.p=-:(

+V.

vicinity of the characteristic time. We introduce characteristics of the unperturbed wave equation,

the

$=y+ct,

ct, p=y

(8.6)

Vp=
Vl

g ("p-V.) (pp+ Vote 2Vop) +p (pyp Vg) Bsgn(ppp Vp) B(po, Vo)
pp

f.+V. -2V. )

~py,

X,

(8.19) (8.20) (8.21) (8.22)

and transform Eq. (8.5), obtaining

pop

pori

1p+ plrq

(pot

2ppp ppo)sg7$(pp

pp)

(8.7)

Vp

pprfop+plrflp+oor

From Eqs. (8.17) and (8.20)

In order to 6nd the characteristics of this equation, we

solve the linear equation,

Vo=f(f')

(8.23)
(8.24)
only

=cp(gpo+2gp+1), rtp
for
g~, where
cp

"=g(i-)+&(S),
(8.8) (8.9)
where g'(f) = f(f). If we assume waves traveling in the positive direction,

sgpp(pp

p).

h(g)

=0.

(8.25)

To terms of second order in Q '

cp+2cp gp=

By direct substitution
g~= pgSgBf(f)

(8.26)

(8 10)

and

If )= constant
equation

is a characteristic (8.7), then

of the inhomogeneous
V
p

'Pg~f(n)-

(8.27)
(8.28)

= l kf'(i)~i~0) f
f.

(~ f)

z(p

)d~+

(8 11)

Now potf'i=0 Thus&

rom (8.20),
I

=--:&If(f)
The solution to the differential equation (8.4) will be given to terms of order Q ', although the discussion of the results will concern mainly the solution to terms
of order Q ' We now solve Eq. (8.7) by setting

(8.29)

The solution to second order in Q

' is

p= g(f )

g'(l)

(~/Q)'(o'o A" (1)

balf(n)

'. &g'(f)),

(8.30)

V= e,
V Vo($ 0)+
7r

(8.12)

f(e 5) =n
Vy($

/Q)'k/8 (
expanding

(8 .31)
by

1)+

~Q&
t2

Vp($ f

)+ ',
'

'

(8.13)
Substituting (8.31) in Taylor's theorem

(8.30), and

6= fp

6y

(8.14)
5 g

&Q

.=i+~
Q

g'(n)

(~z)+I '

(Q)

~ (~z)+",
I

2Q

:( /Q)'0
an input

I.

(8.32)

(8.15)

Now suppose

that at

y=0

strain P($p)

L. KNOPOFF
/W

AND

G.

J. F.

MxcDONALD

/
/
/

~ / %/

"witch" computed by a linearization a nonlinear solution (dashed).

~

FIG.

9.

Comparison

of the strains resulting from an input procedure (solid) and from

'

FIG. 8. Schematic representation of the cusping of a pulse due to propagation in a nonlinear system. The pulse may be represented as portions of two normal pulses.

In this case, the pulse amplitude decreases with distance but does not broaden. In a third case, if
~(~) =
then

= c( is to ct)

be specified. Then we have to solve

sg~ g'(n)+(~/Q)'n/4
2Q

(
gI

n+

2Q

(n'+b')

(8.40)

=e(~), (833)

e(n, y)

=
(rt+ (sy/Q) sg wit)'+b'
decreases as

(8.41)

from which we obtain

g(.) =~I g~'(.)

Here the peak amplitude

(-/Q-)'n/4

I.

b/L(~y/Q)'+b'j

(8.42)

Thus, to second order in vr/Q, the solution in terms of an input strain function is

=~I
Assume P(q)

.
y
Q

-(-/Q)' g~'(~)
2

(8.35)
Q

=exp( mvj). Then to first order in

',

= exp ~(rt'+2s'y

it I /Q)

(8 36)

This function is plotted as a function of t for constant y in Fig. 8, and consists of two limbs, each a portion of a Gaussian. A discontinuous derivative occurs at t=y/c The amplitude of the peak is always unity. The pulse width ultimately vanishes for very large values of y. Thus we have the anomalous situation of a strain, specified to be a Gaussian at some point, propagating with constant amplitude and diminishing width. Energy is absorbed as the pulse propagates but the manner is unusual. To the second order in s/Q
e

= exp ~(g'+ (1ry/Q)' 27ry

/Q

(1r/Q)'), yet

(8.37)

then the cusped arrangement indicated in Fig. 8 still decreases as now holds. The peak amplitude m(sy/Q)'. The pulse still shurPerts with distance, exp the pulse width behaving as (2mysc/Q) '. If we assume

while the pulse duration increases as Esy/Q for large y is a constant used in dehning the pulse duwhere ration. The actual response is a cusped curve as in Fig. 8 but each limb of the curve is a "witch" rather than a Gaussian. The difhculties associated with reconciling the results obtained for three types of input functions g(g), suggest that the curvature of the functions g(q) is extremely important and if haphazardly chosen may lead to such anomalous properties as pulse sharpening. It is perhaps unwise to pass to the limit of excitation by a delta function since the above calculation is a limit cycle procedure and, as pointed out by Lighthill, is valid only for large values of y. The results obtained for excitation by a "witch" (8.40) are perhaps the most pleasing of the three considered, since they show both attenuation and pulse broadening. It is of interest, therefore, to compare the result (8.41) with that obtained by integration of the Kryloff and Bogoliuboff result (8.3), especiany since the result obtained by the latter method has a similar general functional dependence. If we assume an excitation of the form given in (8.40) at some coordinate 2b, yo then the strain by the Krylo8 and Bogoliuboff procedure is b y/2Q

q'+b'

2by
it is

(8.43)

while by the Lighthill procedure

y(q)=e
the peak amplitude,

=0

q&0,' m&0 n&0,

(8.38)

n+2ylml/Q+b"

(8.44)

to first order in s/Q, behaves as

= exp my/Q. s

(8.39)

The pulse duration does not change with coordinate y.

where y is measured from the point of input. Comparison between these functions is shown in Fig. 9. It is also instructive to see how closely the Fourier transforms of the two pulses of the preceding paragraph

ATTENUATION

OF WAUES

IN

SOLI DS

1191

-.(~- ~y~/Qc)
~you/Qc
+MAX

&M

~y~/QC

I
+
MAX' yCU/QC

~you/Qc

-+ &MA(cos(aye/Qc)

- ~ye/Q

Fro. 10. First-order solution for the propagation of a sine wave train. Q=100~.

compare. To terms of order (s./Q)' the Kryloff and BogoliuboG pulse &+y/2Q (8.45)

', the solution to Kq. (8.4) is

~'+ (y/2Q+

o(& &)

=g0)+

s$

Ig'(f) Isg~ g(f)

&)'

has a Fourier transform

exp icl (y/2Q
I

f).

2 g'(f. -)&(f
n

fo.),

-(8.50)

(8.46)

where
t

Upon passage of such a wave through a distance y the normalized Fourier transform is
exp &o/c y/2Q
I I

=q+

sag(f')sgn g'(t)

(8.51)

(8.47)

and where g(f'o ) =0. Thus

as originally obtained. In the case of the Lighthill pulse, to terms of order (s/Q)',
o

(&&)=gl ~
2Q

vr$

g~g'(~) sag(n)s

=&/L(le l+y~/Q)'+&'j.

(8.48)

By a modification of the method of steepest descents, a normalized Fourier transform, valid at low frequencies and at short range, is

2 a

'(rio

rio. )& (g ). (8.52)

If g(q) is the input strain at y=0, then

&(~)=gl

)"

o(y, g)

exp~/c

dg

(~+ erg
2Q

g(~) g g'(~)

=exp /cl/Q, ~yl

(8.49)

+
g(~)=&l
&

7m

P g'(~, e
I

)a(& ), (8.53) &,

where n is a number of the order of but cannot be 2 more precisely specified. Finally we investigate the propagation of a sinuous wave train by the Lighthill technique. To 6rst order in

'

sgng(&)sag'(&)
ml

E g'(no
n

)&(n ), (8 54) ~o.

ii92

L. KNOPOFF

AND

G.

J. F.

MacDONALD

%y P y'(t)s. )H(tt t)s).

(8.55)

If we set P(tt) =sin(oitt/c) then

s(y, ti) = sin
(&0t)
l

(c

sy&v

sgts sin

cos sos
a&q

Qc

c)

anism will require observations other than the dependence of attenuation on frequency. The fact that a single crystal of a given material has a lower dissipation than an aggregate of crystals suggests that a mechanism depending on surface area is important. Birch (personal communication) finds that the dissipation of sound in rocks depends markedly on pressure with increasing pressure tending to reduce the dissipation. This observation similarly suggests a frictional mechanism on the movement of one surface past depending another.
Handbook of Physical Constants (Geological Societyof America, New York, 1942), Special Paper No. 36. F. Birch and D. Bancroft, Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 28, 243 (1938). L. Boltzmann, Ann. Phys. Chem. (PoggendorA'), Erg. -Bd. 7, 624

F. Birch,

eye
Qc

sgtt sin

. (8.56)
cog

This function is represented in Fig. 10. In addition to the damping of the type expected there are present additional high-frequency terms corresponding to the switching at the times of reversal of the sign of the strain and strain rate. A detail of the motion is presented in the inset. The cusping corresponds to the shift of the argument of the first term of Eq. (8.56); the shift occurs each quarter cycle with reversal of the signs of both the strain and strain rate. There is a "holding" at the times of reversal of the sign of the strain corresponding lo the square wave given by the last term of Kq. (8.56) the details of the curvature of the wave form near thes times is given by the second-order terms in varies as The peak amplitude the computation.
1

yt0/Qc = exp n. tryout/Qc.

9. CONCLUDING REMARKS
We have shown that the dissipative characteristics of many solids cannot be accounted for by any linear mechanism of attenuation. One particular model which a nonlinear we have explored in detail involves from a nonrecoverable hysteresis loop resulting deformation at small stresses. This model is by no means unique and other models involving some frictional dissipation could also account for the observations. In particular Fortsch (1957) suggests that Coulomb friction is a mechanism for attenuation. Fortsch's suggested one-dimensional equation
82K
P
82N

Pa
Bt2

=f

SgSBt

BN

(9.1)

By

contains a nonlinear behavior of the type treated in the present paper. This equation leads to 1/Q independent of frequency and the suggested mechanism satisfies the condition imposed by the second law. Fortsch's description, however, allows for no variation in the relative absorptions for compression and shear waves with choice of material. The detailed specification of the dissipative mech-

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