Chart 2 .

Method for the manufacture of seamless ad welded steel pipe ,plus associated product applications

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10. Seamless pipe The main seamless tube manufacturing processes came into being toward the end of the nineteenth century. As patent and proprietary rights expired, the various parallel developments initially pursued became less distinct and their individual forming stages were merged into new processes. Today, the state of the art has developed to the point where preference is given to the following modern high- performance processes: The continuous mandrel rolling process and the push bench process in the size range from approx.21 to 178 mm outside diameter The multi-stand plug mill (MPM) with controlled (constrained) floating mandrel bar and the plug mill process in the size range from approx. 140 to 406 mm outside diameter The cross roll piercing and pilger rolling process in the size range from approx. 250 to 660 mm outside diameter Aside from these broadly defined size range limits, many facilities also operate in other dimensional ranges as described in the following sections and shown in Fig. 1. In spite of many earlier tests, trials and technologies, the invention of the cross roll piercing process by the Mannesmann brothers toward the end of the 1880s is widely regarded as signalling the commencement of industrial-scale tube and pipe production. This cross roll concept marked the first departure from the characteristic feature of all the rolling processes known until that time, i.e. the fact that the roll axes all lay in the same plane, the rolls rotated in opposite directions and the stock exit speed approximated to the roll circumferential speed (Fig. 2). In the cross roll piercing process, the roll axes were arranged parallel to the stock axis but at an angle to the stock plane. With the rolls rotating in the same direction, therefore, this arrangement produced a helical passage for the stock through the roll gap. Moreover, the exit speed was slower by about the power of 10 than the circumferential speed of the rolls. By introducing a piercing mandrel arranged in the roll gap, solid round material could be pierced to produce a hollow shell in the rolling heat by the action of the cross rolls. However, it was not yet possible to produce tubes of normal wall thicknesses in useable lengths by the cross roll piercing process alone. It was only after development and introduction of a second forming stage the pilger rolling process again by the Mannesmann brothers, that it became practicable and economically viable to manufacture seamless steel tube. The pilgering process also constituted an unusual and
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innovative technology in that the thick-walled hollow shell was elongated to the finished tube dimensions by the discontinuous forging action of the pilger rolls or dies on a mandrel located inside the hollow shell. Needless to say, this pioneering development encouraged many inventors at the time to submit a number of patent applications in some cases merely to circumvent the proprietary rights of the Mannesmann brothers, but also to break completely new ground in the manufacture of seamless tube. A member of the first group, R.C. Stiefel, a former Mannesmann employee, is worthy of particular mention. By further developing the cross roll piercing technique, he succeeded in the USA in producing thin-walled hollow shells which were subsequently rolled out to the finished tube on a two-high plug mill which had already become well known from the welding process for which it was used. This plug mill process was initially particularly successful in the USA, and is today employed throughout the world to roughly the same extent as the cross roll piercing and pilgering process. The so-called continuous mandrel rolling mill is associated with the names Charles Kellog and, later, Aloys Fassl. This process initially involved several two-high stands arranged in tandem by means of which the thin-walled hollow bloom was rolled over a mandrel bar to produce the finished tube. Owing to difficult mechanical engineering and drive problems, however, the process was soon assigned to history. Fifty years later, with the advent of modern technology to solve, in particular, the open-loop and closed-loop control problems, it was reborn as one of the most efficient tube rolling mills ever invented. Another possibility for the production of seamless tube was invented by H. Ehrhardt. By piercing a solid square ingot in a round die, he was able to produce a thick-walled hollow shell with a closed bottom. This shell was subsequently stretched on a mandrel bar through tandem-arranged ring dies to produce the final tube dimensions. This socalled push bench process in its modified form has remained viable to this very day. Once the various patents expired, the following decades saw the original manufacturing processes modified to some extent, and the individual forming facilities combined in a wide range of different

57

Fig 5. Pipe forming station

58

59

Fig. .Comoarision between longitudinal and cross rolling Constellations. Depending on the tube size and production mix, and also the availability of starting material, rolling mill facilities of comparatively disparate design were developed and built in the course of time. Moreover, as a result of the further development of individual forming facilities, new processes were also invented, such as the cross roll piercing mill derivatives in the form of the Assel and Diescher processes, or the tube extrusion process derived from the Ehrhardt press.

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Chart 3. Schedule of production and test operations in a modern plant for the longitudinal welding of large diameter line pipe .Circle=production stage; square =test stage

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11. Spiral pipe production

In the production of spiral pipe (also known as helical seam pipe), hot strip or sheet is continuously shaped into a tube by a spiral forming facility applying a constant bending radius, with the abutting strip edges also being continuously welded inline. In contrast to longitudinally welded pipe production, in which each pipe diameter requires a certain plate width, spiral pipe production is characterized by the fact that various pipe diameters can be manufactured from a single strip (skelp) or plate width. This is because the approach angle of the strip as it is fed into the forming unit can be modified. The smaller this inlet angle, the larger the pipe diameter (for a given strip width). The technical and economic optimum in spiral pipe fabrication lies at a ratio of pipe diameter to starting material width of between 1:2 and 1:2.2. Fig. 65 shows the ratio of pipe diameter to starting material width in a comparison between longitudinally welded and spiral pipe production, and also the mathematical dependences which apply in spiral pipe production between feed angle, strip/skelp width and pipe diameter At the current state of large-diameter pipe production technology, the range of pipe diameters covered by the spiral welding process lies between approx. 500 and 2500 mm. The starting material employed for pipe wall thicknesses up to approx. 20 mm takes the form of wide hot-rolled strip. Plate in individual lengths up to 30 m are usually required for pipe wall thicknesses in excess of 20 mm. Spiral pipe production methods fall into two main categories: Facilities with integrated forming and SAW welding lines Facilities with separate forming and SAW welding lines Spiral pipe production in integrated forming and SAW welding lines The integrated forming and SAW welding line can be regarded as the more conventional spiral pipe manufacturing facility. In this configuration, the production process comprises a strip preparation stage, and
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 the pipe forming operation with simultaneous inside and outside pass submerged-arc welding. Aside from welding the strips or plates together (this forms the skelp), the strip preparation stage\ also serves to straighten the skelp and trim it to an exact width. The skelp edges have to be accuratelymachined within close tolerances, and a defined edge crimping operation also has to be performed inorder to prevent impermissible ridge formation/peaking if the pipe forming operation is to besuccessful. Fig. 68 (see also section 4.2.4.2) provides a diagrammatic representation of the strip preparation and pipe forming processes in the case of a two-stage spiral pipe manufacturing configuration. The strip being fed in from the uncoiled is joined to the trailing end of the previous coil by submerged-arc welding from above. The weld is deposited along the face which later will form part of the inside surface of the pipe. The outside SAW pass is deposited in a separate line on the finished pipe. The strip/skelp then runs through a straightening mill and is cut to a constant width by an edge trimmer. Additional tools also bevel the edges in preparation for the main SAW welding operation. Before entry into the forming section, the strip edges are crimped in order to avoid ridging/peaking at the join. In an integrated facility, the strip preparation stage is immediately followed by the forming process with simultaneous inside and outside submerged-arc welding. A pinch-roll unit feeds the skelp at predetermined entry angle into the forming section of the machine. The purpose of the forming section is to bend the exactly prepared skelp of width B at a certain feed angle into a tubular cylinder of diameter D in line with the mathematical relationships indicated in figure . Various forming techniques may be applied to produce the spiral pipes. Aside from the direct forming shoe process which has its limitations there are two main methods which are generally employed (Fig. 66): 3-roll bending with an inside diameter roller cage and 3-roll bending with an outside diameter roller cage. In a 3-roll bending system, numerous individual shaping and guiding rollers are employed rather than a single forming roll.
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Chart 4. Standard dimensions for seamless and welded steel tube and pipe

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The roller cage serves to fix the pipe axis and maximize the roundness of the pipe in order toensureoffset-free convergence of the strip edges at the welding point. This facilitates attainment of accurate pipe dimensions, so that the pipe exiting from the machine is already manufactured to within the standardized diameter, roundness and straightness tolerances. Expansion/sizing of the pipes after welding is therefore not necessary. In the spiral pipe forming and SAW welding machine, the converging strip edges are first inside- welded at approximately the 6 oclock position and then, half a pipe turn further, outside-welded in the 12 oclock position. Welding head alignment to the weld centre, and gap control, are performed automatically. The manufactured pipe string is subsequently cut to length by a flying parting-off device. The individual pipes are then taken to the finishing department where the production process iscompleted by machining of the pipe ends and the performance of any necessary rework. Prior to pipeedge machining, the pipes undergo a hydrostatic test (Fig.). The entire weld region is then ultrasonically inspected, with the weld zones at the pipe ends also being X-rayed

Fig . Spiral pipe forming process In addition, each pipe end is also ultrasonically inspected over its full circumference for laps/laminations. If required, the weld zone and also the parent metal may be ultrasonically inspected following the hydrostatic test.

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As part of the quality assurance regime, both in-process nondestructive inspections and offline mechanical tests are performed as production proceeds. After the pipes have successfully passed through all the test and inspection stages, including the dimensions check, they are presented for final inspection and acceptance. The productivity of this process is determined by the speed of the submerged-arc welding operation. The pipe forming process is capable of substantially higher production speeds. In order better to utilize the efficiency of the spiral pipe forming section, newer plants are being designed on the basis of separate forming and SAW welding lines. In this case, the spiral pipe forming machine features a tack-welding facility which is capable of production speeds commensurate with those of the forming section. The submerged-arc welding of the seams is then performed offline in a number of separate welding stands. Spiral pipe production with separate forming and SAW welding lines The main feature of this new technology is that there are two separate manufacturing processes: Stage 1 Pipe forming with integral tack welding Stage 2 Inside and outside submerged-arc welding on separate welding stands. Fig. 68 shows a diagrammatic representation of the pipe forming and tack welding facility

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Fig. 6. Hydrostatic testing line with downstream pipe end machining section Aside from the higher cost-efficiency of this process (achieved owing to the faster forming and tacking operation) there are also technical benefits derived from separating the pipe forming stage from the main welding stage, as both operations can be individually optimized. In the spiral pipe forming section, the merging strip edges (one on the already formed pipe section and the other on the incoming skelp) are continuously joined by inside tack welding. The tack-welding process is performed by the MAG method (see section 4.2.2) at a speed of 12 m/min in the region of the 6 oclock position. The shield gas employed is carbon dioxide. Theweld edges below the welding position run with virtually no gap over a rigidly fixed guide roller. A flying parting-off device cuts the tack-welded pipe string into the required individual lengths. This pipe cutting process constitutes the last operation performed in the spiral forming machine. Because of the high tack-welding speeds achieved, it has becometorches operating with water injection.

67

Fig 7.. Diagrammatic representation of spiral pipe manufacturing line(pipe forming and tack-welding facility)

68

Fig 8. Diagrammatic illustration of the spiral pipe manufacturing process with separate forming and welding lines 1.forming and tack welding.2.combined two pass submerged arc welding stands(inside and outside passes performed simultaneously.)

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Fig 9.. computer controlled combined two pass submerge arc pipe welding stand for simultaneous inside and outside weld deposition.

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12. Production and Specication of Steel Pipe

To understand the production of steel pipe, we must start at the beginning of basic steel production. Most steel products are downstream, value added products made from these four basic or primary forms of raw steel: ingots, billets, blooms and slabs. These forms can be produced in great volumes and are easily re-heated, extruded, squeezed or formed into many other congurations so as to make virtually every steel product used today. Steel pipe is produced from two of these basic forms of steel, the round billet and the slab. A billet is a solid round bar of steel used to produce many other downstream products such as seamless pipe. The other types of steel pipe are produced from slabs, which are solid rectangular blocks of steel. The slabs are reheated and processed into plate and coils. There are four methods used to produce steel pipe: Fusion Weld, Electric Resistance Weld, Seamless and Double Submerged Arc Weld. Fusion Weld One process for producing pipe is Fusion Weld, sometimes called Continuous Weld and is produced in sizes 1/8 to 4-1/2. Fusion Weld pipe begins as coiled steel of the required width and thickness for the size and weight of pipe to be made. Successive coils of steel are welded end to end to form a continuous ribbon of steel. The ribbon of steel is fed into a leveler and then into a gas furnace where it is heated to the required temperature for forming and fusing. The forming rolls at the end of the furnace shape the heated skelp into an oval The edges of the skelp are then rmly pressed together by rolls to obtain a forged weld. The heat of the skelp, combined with the pressure exerted by the rolls, form the weld. No metal is added into the operation. Final sizing rolls bring the pipe into its required dimensions. Seamless Pipe (SMLS) Seamless Pipe is made when steel in a solid, round cylindrical shape, called a billet or a tube round is heated and then either pushed or pulled (while being rapidly rotated) over a mandrel with a piercing point positioned in the center of the billet. This activity produces a hollow tube or shell. The tube is then further nished until it becomes the size and wall thickness desired. (Because the pipe is formed in a heated manner the pipe is normalized and should have a consistent steel cellular pattern
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throughout its circumference). Seamless pipe is made in sizes from 1/8 to 26 and is widely used in construction, oil rening, chemical and petro-chemical industries. It is available in heavy wall thicknesses and exotic chemistries, and is suitable for coiling, anging and threading. It is, however, expensive, in short supply and unavailable in long lengths. Electric Resistance Weld The processing of Electric Resistance Welded (ERW) pipe begins as a coiled plate of steel with appropriate thickness and specic width to form a pipe that conforms to its relevant specication. ERW pipe is cold formed. The ribbon is pulled through a series of rollers that gradually form it into a cylin- drical tube. As the edges of the now cylindrical plate come together, an electric charge is applied at the proper points to heat the edges so they can be welded together. Electric Resistance Welded pipe is a high speed produc- tion product that can be made in continuous lengths up to 115. It produces uniform wall thicknesses and outside dimen- sions and is made in a wide range of specications. It does, however, require minimum tonnage to set up on a specic size and sometimes has long lead times Double Submerged Arc Weld (DSAW) Submerged Arc Welded (SAW) pipe derives its name from the process wherein the welding arc is submerged in ux while the welding takes place. The ux protects the steel in the weld area from any impurities in the air when heated to welding temperatures. When both inside welds and outside welds are performed, the welding is accomplished in separate processes and the pipe is considered to be Double Submerged Arc Welded (DSAW). There are three common types of pipe produced by the DSAW process. Rolled and Welded This method of manufacturing is also called the Pyramid Roll Method because it uses three rolls arranged in a pyra- midal structure. The plate, ordered by grade and thickness, is rolled back and forth between the pyramid rolls until the cylinder is formed. The cylinder is then moved to the welding U&Ostations. Most pyramid rolls are 20 feet in length or shorter. Greater lengths are achieved by girth welding the vefoot

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10-foot or 20-foot sections (or cans) together. Berg Steel is the only producer capable of rolling 40-foot plates without a mid- weld and it is the only producer capable of sizing its product. Rolled and welded pipe has the advantage of being rolled in small quantities with short lead times. It can be produced in The edges of the skelp are then rmly pressed together by rolls to obtain a forged weld. The heat of the skelp, combined with the pressure exerted by the rolls, form the weld. No metal is added into the operation. Final sizing rolls bring the pipe into its required dimensions U&O Method This U&O Method is so called because it rst uses a U press, then an O press to complete cylinder forming from 40 long plates ordered to size and grade. The cylinder is then welded inside and outside by the submerged arc process by us- ing as many as ve welding wires. Most U&O is cold expanded either mechanically or hydraulically. When it is cold expanded, DSAW pipe gains in yield strength. This method of pipe production produces exceptional quality with exact dimensional tolerances. The primary use of this type of pipe is gas and oil transmission. It requires large minimum tonnages for size setup and is only produced domestically in 40-foot lengths.

Manufacturing Output Using 24 OD x .500 Wall Per Eight Hour Shift ERW 1000 Tons or 16000 SMLS 350 Tons 6000 U&O Press or 250 Tons 4000 or Spiralweld 50 Tons 800 or Rolled Welded &

10 Tons or 160

There are hundreds of specications governing the pro- duction and use of steel pipe. The following chart will exam- ine just a few of the common specications you will normally see in the piling industry

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Methods of Manufacture-Pipe Specications Grade Domestic range ASTM A-53 ASTM A-106 ASTM A-139 ASTM A-252 ASTM A-500 API 5 L AWWA C200 size FW 1/84 Yes No No No No Yes No ERW 224 Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Yes SMLS 1/826 Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes U&O 2048 No No Yes Yes No Yes Yes SPIRAL 4144 No No Yes Yes No Yes Yes R&W 20144 No No Yes Yes No Yes Yes

pipe Specification Grade ASTM A-53 Domestic size range 1/8 thru 26 Usage Domestic and plumbing piping under normal pressure and ASTM A-106 1/ 8 thru 26 temperatures seamless pipe for high temperatures and pressures oil and natural gas transmission

API 5 L

1/8 thru 48

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Digest of Common Specications A-53 Type Type E Grades Chemistr y Yield Type SA B % Max C, MN, P, S A=30,000 Tensile B=35,00 0 A=48,000 Min PSI B=60,000 Min PSI

A-500 Seamles s Welded None

A-252 Seamless ERW, DSAW 1,2,3 0.05 Max % Phos

API 5L Seamless ERW, DSAW

X-42, X-52, X-56, X X-65 C, CB, MN, S, V X-

% Max of C, P, 1=30,000 2=35,000 S 36,000 3=46,000 1=50,000 58,000 2=60,000 3=66,000 None None

42=42,000 X-52=52,000 X-60=60,000 X-42=60,000 X-52=66,000

Hydro Wall Tolerance

Minimum wall not more X-60=75,000 than Yes +/- 10% of 12.5% under nom OD Tolerance +15%, -12.5% nominal wall Ye Weight thickness s Tolerance specication will vary slightly from the other as +/-1% of specication designed Each the only OD Minimum specically for piling is ASTM A-252. The other specications, though intended .75% of OD +/- for +/- .75% of Not differences, though subtle, more than 12.5% wall not more different uses, can be used in a structural application. The over or than 12.5% Not to OD in substitution and care must be taken more than 10% o may be great enough to cause problems None 5% under theoretical or under nom evaluate any change. weight 3.5 % under theoret +/- 1% of weight Notice that there is aOD weight tolerance for the ASTM A-252 pipe specication and that this tolerance is one half that of A-53. This means that the same wall thickness ordered of for one specication=/- 10% thinner than that of the other. For instance, if you may be theoretical ordered 24 x .500 ASTM weight A-53 and same amount of 24 x .500 ASTM A-252, the mini- mum wall thickness as addressed in the allowable variations section of the specication would be the same. However, the weight tolerance for A-53 is double that of A-252. In other words, the minimum weight allowable for 24 x .500 A-53, whose theoretical weight is 125.61#/ft, is 113.05#/ft (125.61#/ft - 12.6#/ft). But the minimum weight allowable for the 24 x .500 steel pipe under the A-252 specication

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Is 119.33#/ft (125.61#/ft - 6.28#/ft). Put more simply, the mill is allowed to ship as low a wall thickness as .450 under the A-53 specication, but can only ship as low as .475 under the A-252 specication. But, if you followed the wall thickness tolerance only, the mill would be allowed to ship as low as .438 wall (.500 less 12.5%). For quality control purposes, all the pertinent information about each piece of pipe can be found on the stencil afxed to that pipe. Some mills stencil on the exterior and some on the interior of the tube. Some mills are using the more modern bar codes afxed to the interior of the pipe. Most mills will stencil

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13. PLASMA CUTTING

Plasma cutting is a process that is used to cut steel and other metals of different thicknesses (or sometimes other materials) using a plasma torch. In this process, an inert gas (in some units, compressed air) is blown at high speed out of a nozzle; at the same time an electrical arc is formed through that gas from the nozzle to the surface being cut, turning some of that gas to plasma. The plasma is sufficiently hot to melt the metal being cut and moves sufficiently fast to blow molten metal away from the cut.

Process The HF Contact type uses a high-frequency, high-voltage spark to ionize the air through the torch head and initiate an arc. These require the torch to be in contact with the job material when starting, and so are not suitable for applications involving computer numerical controlled (CNC) cutting. The Pilot Arc type uses a two cycle approach to producing plasma, avoiding the need for initial contact. First, a high-voltage, low current circuit is used to initialize a very small high-intensity spark within the torch body, thereby generating a small pocket of plasma gas. This is referred to as the pilot arc. The pilot arc has a return electrical path built into the torch head. The pilot arc will maintain itself until it is brought into proximity of the workpiece where it ignites the main plasma cutting arc. Plasma arcs are extremely hot and are in the range of 25,000 C (45,000 F).[1] Plasma is an effective means of cutting thin and thick materials alike. Hand-held torches can usually cut up to 2 inches (51 mm) thick steel plate, and stronger computercontrolled torches can cut steel up to 6 inches (150 mm) thick. Since plasma cutters produce a very hot and very localized "cone" to cut with, they are extremely useful for cutting sheet metal in curved or angled shapes

History Plasma cutting grew out of plasma welding in the 1960s, and emerged as a very productive way to cut sheet metal and plate in the 1980s.[2] It had the advantages over traditional "metal against metal" cutting of producing no metal chips and giving accurate cuts, and produced a cleaner edge than oxy-fuel cutting. Early plasma cutters
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were large, somewhat slow and expensive and, therefore, tended to be dedicated to repeating cutting patterns in a "mass production" mode. As with other machine tools, CNC (computer numerical control) technology was applied to plasma cutting machines in the late 1980s into the 1990s, giving plasma cutting machines greater flexibility to cut diverse shapes "on demand" based on a set of instructions that were programmed into the machine's numerical control.[3] These CNC plasma cutting machines were, however, generally limited to cutting patterns and parts in flat sheets of steel, using only two axes of motion (referred to as X Y cutting).

Safety Proper eye protection such as welding goggles and face shields are needed to prevent eye damage called arc eye as well as damage from debris. It is recommended to use lens shade #6 or darker for cutting to prevent the retina of your eye being "flashed" or burned.

Starting methods Plasma cutters use a number of methods to start the arc. In some units, the arc is created by putting the torch in contact with the work piece. Some cutters use a high voltage, high frequency circuit to start the arc. This method has a number of disadvantages, including risk of electrocution, difficulty of repair, spark gap maintenance, and the large amount of radio frequency emissions.[1] Plasma cutters working near sensitive electronics, such as CNC hardware or computers, start the pilot arc by other means. The nozzle and electrode are in contact. The nozzle is the cathode, and the electrode is the anode. When the plasma gas begins to flow, the nozzle is blown forward. A third, less common method is capacitive discharge into the primary circuit via a silicon controlled rectifier.

Inverter plasma cutters Analog plasma cutters, typically requiring more than 2 kilowatts, use a heavy mainsfrequency transformer. Inverter plasma cutters rectify the mains supply to DC, which is fed into a high-frequency transistor inverter between 10 kHz to about 200 kHz. Higher

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switching frequencies give greater efficiencies in the transformer, allowing its size and weight to be reduced. The transistors used were initially MOSFETs, but are now increasingly using IGBTs. With paralleled MOSFETs, if one of the transistors activates prematurely it can lead to a cascading failure of one quarter of the inverter. A later invention, IGBTs, are not as subject to this failure mode. IGBTs can be generally found in high current machines where it is not possible to parallel sufficient MOSFET transistors. The switch mode topology is referred to as a dual transistor off-line forward converter. Although lighter and more powerful, some inverter plasma cutters, especially those without power factor correction, cannot be run from a generator (that means manufacturer of the inverter unit forbids doing so; it is only valid for small, light portable generators). However newer models have internal circuitry that allow units without power factor correction to run on light power generators.

Plasma gouging Plasma gouging is a related process, typically performed on the same equipment as plasma cutting. Instead of cutting the material, plasma gouging uses a different torch configuration (torch nozzles and gas diffusers are usually different), and a longer torchto-workpiece distance, to blow away metal. Plasma gouging can be used in a variety of applications, including removing a weld for rework. The additional sparks generated by the process requires the operator to wear a leather shield protecting their hand and forearm. Torch leads also can be protected by a leather sheath or heavy insulation CNC cutting methods Some plasma cutter manufacturers build CNC cutting tables, and some have the cutter built in to the table. CNC tables allow a computer to control the torch head producing clean sharp cuts. Modern CNC plasma equipment is capable of multi-axis cutting of thick material, allowing opportunities for complex welding seams that are not possible otherwise. For thinner material, plasma cutting is being progressively replaced by laser cutting, due mainly to the laser cutter's superior hole-cutting abilities. A specialized use of CNC Plasma Cutters has been in the HVAC industry. Software processes information on ductwork and creates flat patterns to be cut on the cutting table by the plasma torch. This technology has enormously increased productivity within the industry since its introduction in the early 1980s.
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In recent years there has been even more development. Traditionally the machines' cutting tables were horizontal, but now vertical CNC plasma cutting machines are available, providing for a smaller footprint, increased flexibility, optimum safety and faster operation.

Fig. 11 Plasma cutting with a CNC machine

Plasma cutting with a tilting head

New technology In the past decade plasma torch manufacturers have engineered new models with a smaller nozzle and a thinner plasma arc. This allows near-laser precision on plasma cut edges. Several manufacturers have combined precision CNC control with these torches to allow fabricators to produce parts that require little or no finishing. Costs Plasma torches were once quite expensive. For this reason they were usually only found in professional welding shops and very well-stocked private garages and shops. However, modern plasma torches are becoming cheaper, and now are within the price range of many hobbyists. Older units may be very heavy, but still portable, while some newer ones with inverter technology weigh only a little, yet equal or exceed the capacities of older ones.

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14. PIPE BEVELING MACHINE GENERAL: The Pipe Bevelling Machine is used for the purpose of beveling the Pipe End. Pipe is Beveled from the Outer and Front is faced by two different tools. The Pipe remains Stationery and the Beveling Head rotates and comes out of the Head Stock for cutting the Pipe End. The Pipe Bevelling Machine mainly consists of the following:- Bed, - Head Stock, - Clamping Vice, - Beveling Head. BED: The Bed of Pipe Bevelling Machine is made of Cast Iron. It is Very Rigid and sturdy in construction so as to take maximum Load and absorb max. Vibrations. It is provided with four Nos. Foundation Holes of Dia M20 at four corners of the bed. It is also provided with Four Tapped holes of 5/8" BSW near the Foundation Holes. The Head Stock and Clamping Vice is fitted on the Bed. HEAD STOCK: The Head Stock body of Pipe Bevelling Machine is made of Cast Iron. It is Very rigid and sturdy in design. The Head Stock is designed for Four Nos. Spindle speeds. All the Gears are of helical type made out of Axle Forging. The width of gears is 50 mm. The Shifting Gears slide on Splined Shafts. The Shafts are mounted on Heavy Duty Ball Bearings. The Input Shaft will be provided with a pulley having three grooves for CSection V-belts. The Main Spindle is mounted on two Taper Roller Bearings mounted in Hard Chrome Plated Ground Sleeve. The Sleeve along with main spindle fitted with Beveling Head is mounted in the Head Stock body and is movable To and Fro along its axis. A Hyd. Cylinder actuated electrically makes the movement of the sleeve in the Head Stock. The Movement of the Sleeve can also be made manually. The Head Stock is Oil Filled. It is provided with Oil Filling hole, Oil Drain hole and Oil Level Indicator. CLAMPING VICE: The Box Type Clamping Vice is fitted on the Bed. The Vice is provided with Round Clamping Jaws for each size (4", 5", 6", 7", 8",). The Vice will be Self-centering type. The movement of the Clamping Jaws is made by Pneumatic cylinder fitted on the Vice actuated electrically. The Vice will be very rigid and sturdy in design. Machine will be supplied with single clamping vice.
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BEVELLING HEAD: A special Beveling Head will be provided with the machine. Two Tools of HSS will be used, One for Beveling and second for Root Face. The Beveling Tool will be mounted in a special Spring Loaded Tool Holder with a Roller device. It is fitted on the main spindle that is then mounted in the traveling Sleeve. Note: - One set of Round Type Clamping Jaws will be provided with the machine. Other Round Type Clamping Jaws are Optional and will be supplied at an extra Cost.

Fig 12. Pipe beveling machine

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15. Ultrasonic testing

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing Ultrasonic Testing (UT) uses high frequency sound energy to conduct examinations and make measurements. Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw detection/evaluation, dimensional measurements, material characterization, and more. To illustrate the general inspection principle, a typical pulse/echo inspection configuration as illustrated below will be used. A typical UT inspection system consists of several functional units, such as the pulser/receiver, transducer, and display devices. A pulser/receiver is an electronic device that can produce high voltage electrical pulses. Driven by the pulser, the transducer generates high frequency ultrasonic energy. The sound energy is introduced and propagates through the materials in the form of waves. When there is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part of the energy will be reflected back from the flaw surface. The reflected wave signal is transformed into an electrical signal by the transducer and is displayed on a screen. In the applet below, the reflected signal strength is displayed versus the time from signal generation to when a echo was received. Signal travel time can be directly related to the distance that the signal traveled. From the signal, information about the reflector location, size, orientation and other features can sometimes be gained. Wave Propagation Ultrasonic testing is based on time-varying deformations or vibrations in materials, which is generally referred to as acoustics. All material substances are comprised of atoms, which may be forced into vibrational motion about their equilibrium positions. Many different patterns of vibrational motion exist at the atomic level, however, most are irrelevant to acoustics and ultrasonic testing. Acoustics is focused on particles that contain many atoms that move in unison to produce a mechanical wave. When a material is not stressed in tension or compression beyond its elastic limit, its individual particles perform elastic oscillations. When the particles of a medium are displaced from their equilibrium positions, internal (electrostatic) restoration forces arise. It is these elastic restoring forces between particles, combined with inertia of the particles, that leads to the oscillatory motions of the medium. In solids, sound waves can propagate in four principle modes that are based on the way the particles oscillate. Sound can propagate as longitudinal waves, shear waves, surface waves, and in thin materials as plate waves. Longitudinal and shear waves are the two

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modes of propagation most widely used in ultrasonic testing. The particle movement responsible for the propagation of longitudinal and shear waves is illustrated below.

Fig 13. . wave propagation In longitudinal waves, the oscillations occur in the longitudinal direction or the direction of wave propagation. Since compressional and dilational forces are active in these waves, they are also called pressure or compressional waves. They are also sometimes called density waves because their particle density fluctuates as they move. Compression waves can be generated in liquids, as well as solids because the energy travels through the atomic structure by a series of compressions and expansion (rarefaction) movements. In the transverse or shear wave, the particles oscillate at a right angle or transverse to the direction of propagation. Shear waves require an acoustically solid material for effective propagation, and therefore, are not effectively propagated in materials such as liquids or gasses. Shear waves are relatively weak when compared to longitudinal waves. In fact, shear waves are usually generated in materials using some of the energy from longitudinal waves. Ultrasonic Inspection is a very useful and versatile NDT method. Some of the advantages of ultrasonic inspection that are often cited include:

It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities. The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to other NDT methods. Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo technique is used. It is highly accurate in determining reflector position and estimating size and shape.
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Minimal part preparation is required. Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results. Detailed images can be produced with automated systems. It has other uses, such as thickness measurement, in addition to flaw detection.

As with all NDT methods, ultrasonic inspection also has its limitations, which include:

Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound. Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods. It normally requires a coupling medium to promote the transfer of sound energy into the test specimen. Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect. Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect due to low sound transmission and high signal noise. Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected. Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration and the characterization of flaws.

The above introduction provides a simplified introduction to the NDT method of ultrasonic testing. However, to effectively perform an inspection using ultrasonics, much more about the method needs to be known. The following pages present information on the science involved in ultrasonic inspection, the equipment that is commonly used, some of the measurement techniques used, as well as other information. History of Ultrasonics Prior to World War II, sonar, the technique of sending sound waves through water and observing the returning echoes to characterize submerged objects, inspired early ultrasound investigators to explore ways to apply the concept to medical diagnosis. In 1929 and 1935, Sokolov studied the use of ultrasonic waves in detecting metal objects. Mulhauser, in 1931, obtained a patent for using ultrasonic waves, using two transducers to detect flaws in solids. Firestone (1940) and Simons (1945) developed pulsed ultrasonic testing using a pulse-echo technique. Shortly after the close of World War II, researchers in Japan began to explore the medical diagnostic capabilities of ultrasound. The first ultrasonic instruments used an A-mode presentation with blips on an oscilloscope screen. That was followed by a Bmode presentation with a two dimensional, gray scale image. Japan's work in ultrasound was relatively unknown in the United States and Europe until the 1950s. Researchers then presented their findings on the use of ultrasound to
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detect gallstones, breast masses, and tumors to the international medical community. Japan was also the first country to apply Doppler ultrasound, an application of ultrasound that detects internal moving objects such as blood coursing through the heart for cardiovascular investigation.

Ultrasound pioneers working in the United States contributed many innovations and important discoveries to the field during the following decades. Researchers learned to use ultrasound to detect potential cancer and to visualize tumors in living subjects and in excised tissue. Real-time imaging, another significant diagnostic tool for physicians, presented ultrasound images directly on the system's CRT screen at the time of scanning. The introduction of spectral Doppler and later color Doppler depicted blood flow in various colors to indicate the speed and direction of the flow.. The United States also produced the earliest hand held "contact" scanner for clinical use, the second generation of B-mode equipment, and the prototype for the first articulatedarm hand held scanner, with 2-D images. Beginnings of Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) Nondestructive testing has been practiced for many decades, with initial rapid developments in instrumentation spurred by the technological advances that occurred during World War II and the subsequent defense effort. During the earlier days, the primary purpose was the detection of defects. As a part of "safe life" design, it was intended that a structure should not develop macroscopic defects during its life, with the detection of such defects being a cause for removal of the component from service. In response to this need, increasingly sophisticated techniques using ultrasonics, eddy currents, x-rays, dye penetrants, magnetic particles, and other forms of interrogating energy emerged. In the early 1970's, two events occurred which caused a major change in the NDT field. First, improvements in the technology led to the ability to detect small flaws, which caused more parts to be rejected even though the probability of component failure had not changed. However, the discipline of fracture mechanics emerged, which enabled one to predict whether a crack of a given size will fail under a particular load when a material's fracture toughness properties are known. Other laws were developed to predict the growth rate of cracks under cyclic loading (fatigue). With the advent of these tools, it became possible to accept structures containing defects if the sizes of those defects were known. This formed the basis for the new philosophy of "damage tolerant" design. Components having known defects could continue in service as long as it could be established that those defects would not grow to a critical, failure producing size.
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A new challenge was thus presented to the nondestructive testing community. Detection was not enough. One needed to also obtain quantitative information about flaw size to serve as an input to fracture mechanics based predictions of remaining life. The need for quantitative information was particularly strongly in the defense and nuclear power industries and led to the emergence of quantitative nondestructive evaluation (QNDE) as a new engineering/research discipline. A number of research programs around the world were started, such as the Center for Nondestructive Evaluation at Iowa State University (growing out of a major research effort at the Rockwell International Science Center); the Electric Power Research Institute in Charlotte, North Carolina; the Fraunhofer Institute for Nondestructive Testing in Saarbrucken, Germany; and the Nondestructive Testing Centre in Harwell, England.

Fig 13. Ultra sonic testing Present State of Ultrasonics Ultrasonic testing (UT) has been practiced for many decades. Initial rapid developments in instrumentation spurred by the technological advances from the 1950's continue today. Through the 1980's and continuing through the present, computers have provided technicians with smaller and more rugged instruments with greater capabilities. Thickness gauging is an example application where instruments have been refined make data collection easier and better. Built-in data logging capabilities allow thousands of measurements to be recorded and eliminate the need for a "scribe." Some instruments have the capability to capture waveforms as well as thickness readings. The waveform option allows an operator to view or review the A-scan signal of thickness measurement long after the completion of an inspection. Also, some instruments are
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capable of modifying the measurement based on the surface conditions of the material. For example, the signal from a pitted or eroded inner surface of a pipe would be treated differently than a smooth surface. This has led to more accurate and repeatable field measurements Many ultrasonic flaw detectors have a trigonometric function that allows for fast and accurate location determination of flaws when performing shear wave inspections. Cathode ray tubes, for the most part, have been replaced with LED or LCD screens. These screens, in most cases, are extremely easy to view in a wide range of ambient lighting. Bright or low light working conditions encountered by technicians have little effect on the technician's ability to view the screen. Screens can be adjusted for brightness, contrast, and on some instruments even the color of the screen and signal can be selected. Transducers can be programmed with predetermined instrument settings. The operator only has to connect the transducer and the instrument will set variables such as frequency and probe drive. Along with computers, motion control and robotics have contributed to the advancement of ultrasonic inspections. Early on, the advantage of a stationary platform was recognized and used in industry. Computers can be programmed to inspect large, complex shaped components, with one or multiple transducers collecting information. Automated systems typically consisted of an immersion tank, scanning system, and recording system for a printout of the scan. The immersion tank can be replaced with a squirter systems, which allows the sound to be transmitted through a water column. The resultant C-scan provides a plan or top view of the component. Scanning of components is considerably faster than contact hand scanning, the coupling is much more consistent. The scan information is collected by a computer for evaluation, transmission to a customer, and archiving. Today, quantitative theories have been developed to describe the interaction of the interrogating fields with flaws. Models incorporating the results have been integrated with solid model descriptions of real-part geometries to simulate practical inspections. Related tools allow NDE to be considered during the design process on an equal footing with other failure-related engineering disciplines. Quantitative descriptions of NDE performance, such as the probability of detection (POD), have become an integral part of statistical risk assessment. Measurement procedures initially developed for metals have been extended to engineered materials such as composites, where anisotropy and inhomogeneity have become important issues. The rapid advances in digitization and computing capabilities have totally changed the faces of many instruments and the type of algorithms that are used in processing the resulting data. High-resolution imaging systems and multiple measurement modalities for characterizing a flaw have emerged. Interest is increasing not only in detecting, characterizing, and sizing defects, but also in characterizing the materials. Goals range from the determination of fundamental microstructural characteristics such as grain size, porosity, and texture (preferred grain orientation), to material properties related to such failure mechanisms as fatigue, creep, and fracture toughness. As technology continues to advance, applications of ultrasound also advance. The high-resolution imaging systems in the laboratory today will be tools of the technician tomorrow
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Wavelength and Defect Detection In ultrasonic testing, the inspector must make a decision about the frequency of the transducer that will be used. As we learned on the previous page, changing the frequency when the sound velocity is fixed will result in a change in the wavelength of the sound. The wavelength of the ultrasound used has a significant effect on the probability of detecting a discontinuity. A general rule of thumb is that a discontinuity must be larger than one-half the wavelength to stand a reasonable chance of being detected. Sensitivity and resolution are two terms that are often used in ultrasonic inspection to describe a technique's ability to locate flaws. Sensitivity is the ability to locate small discontinuities. Sensitivity generally increases with higher frequency (shorter wavelengths). Resolution is the ability of the system to locate discontinuities that are close together within the material or located near the part surface. Resolution also generally increases as the frequency increases. The wave frequency can also affect the capability of an inspection in adverse ways. Therefore, selecting the optimal inspection frequency often involves maintaining a balance between the favorable and unfavorable results of the selection. Before selecting an inspection frequency, the material's grain structure and thickness, and the discontinuity's type, size, and probable location should be considered. As frequency increases, sound tends to scatter from large or course grain structure and from small imperfections within a material. Cast materials often have coarse grains and other sound scatters that require lower frequencies to be used for evaluations of these products. Wrought and forged products with directional and refined grain structure can usually be inspected with higher frequency transducers. Since more things in a material are likely to scatter a portion of the sound energy at higher frequencies, the penetrating power (or the maximum depth in a material that flaws can be located) is also reduced. Frequency also has an effect on the shape of the ultrasonic beam. Beam spread, or the divergence of the beam from the center axis of the transducer, and how it is affected by frequency will be discussed later. It should be mentioned, so as not to be misleading, that a number of other variables will also affect the ability of ultrasound to locate defects. These include the pulse length, type and voltage applied to the crystal, properties of the crystal, backing material, transducer diameter, and the receiver circuitry of the instrument. These are discussed in more detail in the material on signal-to-noise ratio.

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16.A Procedure for the Hydrostatic Pressure Testing of Marine Facility Piping

SCOPE The purpose of this methodology is to provide a useful alternative that a marine facility operator can implement to facilitate hydrotest planning, performance and interpretation. Providing precise and complete test data will allow the facility operator and California State Lands Commission (CSLC) to more effectively assess the validity of hydrostatic pressure tests. This methodology is intended for use in conjunction with the recently developed CSLC testing calculation (spreadsheet) applicable to testing of marine facility piping and pipelines under the jurisdiction of the California State Lands Commission as defined in Article 5.5 of the California Code of Regulations. This is not regulation; however using these tools may help to improve the consistency and quality of data collected during the test. CODES AND STANDARDS The following codes and standards are referenced or provide additional information and guidelines for conducting pressure testing of pipelines or piping: California Code of Regulations, Article 5.5, Marine Terminal Oil Pipelines Department of Transportation, 49 CFR Part 195, Transportation of hazardous liquids by pipeline American Society of Mechanical Engineers, B31.4, Pipeline Transportation Systems For Liquid Hydrocarbons and Other Liquids American Petroleum Institute, Recommended Practice 1110, Pressure Testing of Liquid Petroleum Pipelines PLANNING THE TEST Test Pressure Prior to the hydrotest, the pipeline operator should determine the minimum and maximum test pressure ranges. These test pressures should take into account the current status of the pipe, maximum operating pressures and the applicable federal, state, and local regulations. In accordance with Article 5.5, the pressure during the test
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must be maintained to be at least 125% of the maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP) for that pipeline. In general, the lowest pressure reading during the test period will be one factor in limiting the maximum allowable operating pressure in the system. Both flange ratings and the presence of pressure relief devices must be considered when setting the test pressure. Pressure ratings for flanges located with the tested pipeline must be identified and recorded. Pressure relief devices must also be identified and recorded. These devices should be removed or isolated as necessary. Test Mediums It is recommended that the test be conducted in water. However, liquid hydrocarbons with a flashpoint greater than 140 degrees Fahrenheit or 60 degrees centigrade can also be used as the test medium. Fluid properties for these test mediums should be obtained prior to the test for pre-test and post-test calculations. Data for common hydrocarbon test mediums are provided in the spreadsheet; however these should be compared to specific fluid properties obtained from the terminal or refinery. NOTE: Liquid hydrocarbons typically expand more due to temperature changes than does water, and it may be more difficult to obtain satisfactory test results, especially when aboveground pipeline segments are tested. Another drawback to using hydrocarbon as a test medium for pipelines that are located either over water or are submerged is that product may spill into the water if a leak occurs during the test Test Segments The facility operator shall provide an accurate description of the piping section to be tested. It is recommended that the facility operator develop an isometric drawing showing the piping section with accurate pipe lengths, locations of fittings and valves, pipe diameters, wall thickness and pipe grade (elevation) information. Also, the drawing should show the lengths of the aboveground and belowground sections that will be tested. Accurate as possible pipeline lengths shall be determined prior to the test (from a scale drawing or by direct measurement using a tape measure or walker wheel). It is recommended that a pipeline undergoing test be segmented so that the test is conducted against blind flanges. This eliminates the chances of fluid bypass through valves, which reduces the accuracy of the results. When a full blind flange cannot be inserted to isolate the pipeline segment, consider using a pan blind. 3.3.3 If testing against blinds is not possible, the pipeline operator could consider performing a static test to assess the integrity of the valve(s) that will be used for sectioning. The pipe section could be pressurized to a pressure below the Maximum Operating Pressure (MOP) and each valve checked by visual, audible or remote means
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for fluid bypass. Any fluid bypass through a valve can drastically reduce the accuracy of the test data collected and may cause test results to fall outside the acceptance criteria calculated from the spreadsheet. Line Fill To obtain accurate results, it is important that the entire piping system, and especially any elevated piping sections, be reasonably free of air or other entrapped gas. If testing with water, the facility operator should prepare a line fill plan that removes product completely and reduces the amount of air in a test section. Eliminating air increases the accuracy of the test results and too much air may mask leaks during the pressure test. A common method for filling a piggable line involves using a pig to displace fluid with water. If this is not feasible, the water flush should be at a fast enough rate, appropriate for the pipe size, volume, and fluid displaced, that will ensure a completely turbulent interface between the water and displaced fluid. If eliminating trapped air/gas from the tested pipeline is problematic, it is strongly recommended to install high point vent valves. If high point vents are installed, bleed trapped air/gas completely from the valves. The spreadsheet calculates an estimated line fill volume based upon the theoretical ratio of volume change to pressure change (DV/DP) as discussed in the following section. This value can be used for line fill planning and verification purposes. Pre-test Calculations DV/DP Definition DV/DP is defined as the change in volume for an associated change in pressure of a known volume under pressure. Two DV/DP calculations are used in these guidelines, a theoretical and a field value. A theoretical DV/DP will give the expected volume change for an associated change in pressure for the specified volume under test assuming that the volume under pressure is free of entrained gas. The field value of DV/DP is the actual volume change for an associated change in pressure for the specified volume under test. If air exists within the line under pressure, this value will be different that the theoretical value. This procedure provides guidelines for calculating both DV/DPs and acceptable differences between the theoretical and field values of DV/DP. 3.5.1 Theoretical DV/DP Prior to start-up of test activities, the facility operator should perform a pre-test calculation to obtain a theoretical value of the DV/DP for the verified volume of pipe

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under test and the appropriate test medium. This information can be used to determine whether entrained gas exists in the line under test. The theoretical DV/DP for aboveground (unrestrained) pipe is calculated through the following equation:

The theoretical DV/DP for buried (restrained) pipe is calculated through the following equation:

where, V = volume of the segment for the individual pipe diameter, D (gallons), D = outside diameter of pipe (in), E = elastic modulus of steel pipe (psi), t = wall thickness of pipe (in), = poissons ratio of steel pipe, C = compressibility of test media (in /in /psi). NOTE: For a test segment with multiple diameters, sum the individual DV/DPs of each pipe diameter to obtain a total DV/DP for the entire test section. NOTE: The DV/DP constant provides useful data with which to predict how much fluid will be required to bring up a test segment to pressure. For example, for a fully packed line at 0 psi, with a desired pressure of 100 psi and DV/DP constant of 0.50 gallons/psi, the amount of fluid which will be required to bring the segment to test pressure will be 100 psi x 0.50 gallons/psi = 50 gallons. This will be the minimum amount, if trapped air is present the required amount of fluid to reach test pressure could be much larger. See Section 4.4 of this procedure for information about field DV/DP. The spreadsheet can be used to calculate the theoretical value of DV/DP Test Sensitivity During a hydrotest several factors will affect the accuracy of test results. An overview of these factors follows:
3 3

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Fluid Temperature Fluid temperature is affected by a variety of factors including ambient temperature, weather conditions, pipe location, test media source, pipe color, etc. For buried pipe, the expected fluctuation due to ambient temperature effects should be small due to the insulation provided by soil. For aboveground pipe, external conditions will have the greatest impact. As fluid temperature increases, the hydrotest pressure should be expected to increase. As fluid temperature decreases, the hydrotest pressure should be expected to decrease. Pressure data that does not trend with temperature changes in fluid data should be carefully analyzed. Data that does not trend correctly may indicate the existence of a leak or poor placement of the temperature recording instrumentation. The following table provides some calculated data for the expected fluid temperature increase over a four-hour period for standard pipe diameters and wall thickness. Table 1 below is provided to show the relative sensitivity of fluid (water) temperature to ambient temperature for highly idealized cases. In this case ambient temperature is held constant assuming a four-hour test period and initial water temperature of 60F: Entrained Air Entrained air may prevent stabilization of the testing fluid during a test or may mask the presence of an actual leak. The first indication of significant amount of entrained air will usually occur during pressurization. Pressurization will not be immediate since water injected into the test section must displace a significant volume of highly compressible air. Also, expanding air may prevent the detection of an actual leak in the test segment. If a small leak is present, the expected pressure loss due to the leak may not be apparent since expanding air within the pipeline will tend to keep the pressure constant. This is the primary reason for using DV/DPs to determine the percentage of air that is present and for eliminating air in the test section. Chart 1 shows the effect of pipeline pressure versus volume injected for various quantities of trapped air for 1000 ft of 8.625 pipe. The chart shows how air can effect the volume required to reach full test pressure. Coefficient of Thermal Expansion The coefficient of thermal expansion of the test medium effects the calculated volume and pressure changes versus a change in temperature (DV/DT & DP/DT). Mediums with high thermal coefficients are very sensitive to changes in temperature. Therefore, for the same temperature recording accuracy, a product test would potentially show a
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higher volume or pressure change when compared with water as a test medium. This is the primary reason for using water as a test medium and for taking accurate temperature data.

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Test Accuracy The Pass/Fail criteria that has been developed is dependent upon three variables that effect the calculated volume loss or gain during a hydrotest. These variables are the change in pressure during the test, the change in temperature experienced by the fluid during the test and the change in fluid volume (though bleeding, injecting or leaks) during the test. This section discusses the recommended accuracy of the instrumentation to be used in the hydrotest. Pressure Recording Pressure recording devices should have an accuracy of +/- 1 psi. A typical deadweight tester has this accuracy and shall be used for the test. A typical clock type chart recorder can be used for documentation purposes but should not be relied upon for providing actual pressure data that will be used in post-test calculations. Electronic pressure recorders with higher resolution may provide more frequent and accurate data sampling to enable pressure trending during the test. Temperature Recording Regardless of the test medium used, the temperature recording device should have a high accuracy. The output resolution for a water test should be 0.1F and for a hydrocarbon test the recommended resolution is 0.01F. A typical clock type chart recorder can be used for documentation purposes but should not be relied upon for providing the temperature data that will be used in post-test calculations. Volume Measurements Accurate determination of fluid volumes bled or injected should be accounted for during a test. Volumes should be measured using the most precise graduations available. As a rule of thumb, if the theoretical DV/DP in gallons/psi is greater than 0.1 gallon/psi, then measurements should be taken to the nearest gallon. If the DV/DP is between 0.1 and 0.01 gallon/psi then the measurements should be taken to the nearest pint (1/8 gallon). For DV/DPs less than 0.01 gallons/psi, the measurements should be taken to the nearest ounce (this can be done by using a standard measuring cup). PERFORMING THE TEST Ambient Conditions Ambient conditions may have great impact on fluid temperature and the accuracy of hydrostatic test results. Certain ambient conditions may not only provide improved test
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results but may actually make the hydrotest operations easier. The following guidelines can be used for assessing ambient conditions. Hydrostatic tests should not be conducted in rainy or wet conditions since visual leak detection may not be possible. Aboveground pipe tests should be conducted on cloudy, overcast or cool days to minimize thermal heating of the fluid. This will reduce the amount bleeding that will be required, which may be significant for large sections of aboveground pipe exposed to the sun on hot days. Types of weather/external conditions that should be avoided are very hot (summer), extremely windy, rainy and wet (due to condensate, dew, mist, salt water spray etc.) conditions. Pressure Recording Equipment The following pressure recording equipment shall be used during a hydrotest in accordance with Article 5.5: a calibrated deadweight tester with 1 psi increments and a calibrated pressure chart recorder. Pressure recording equipment should be installed so that localized surges from the test pump or bleed lines do not interfere with the readings. A dedicated test manifold that allows each instrument to be blocked in separately is recommended. Pressure transmitters or other type of pressure recording device with the required or better accuracy can also be used, but for record keeping purposes a chart recorder should be provided.

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17. X-Ray Test and Fluoroscopy

This is an effective means of testing welds, where one can continuously view the weld seam on video monitor. Real Time Radiography is done essentially on the first pipe from production for setting up the welding and other inspection parameters. It is done every time the pipe size/wall thickness are changed. However, it may be done as per the clients requirements/specification. Final Inspection, Visual Checking, Weighing and Measuring Each pipe is finally inspected after all the required tests / inspections are carried out on the same by works inspectors / third party inspection agency depending on the

Fig 14. . x-ray testing machine customers requirement for the following within the acceptance norms or not. The inside & outside surface end welds are checked Dimensional checks like outside diameter, wall thickness, length, straightness, joviality, out of square ness etc. Bevel ends of the pipe for Bevel angle, Bevel root face and workmanship. Finally when the pipe is acceptable, then the pipe is marked, stamped and coated as per the requirement / governing specification.

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Each pipe is weighed on a digital weighing scale and measured for the exact meter age also which also helps to compare it with theoretically calculated weight of pipe. Physical measurement helps to find whether it is within the tolerance of clients requirement. Final Marking Each pipe is marked and given a specific serial no. which helps to get the complete details or history of the particular pipe such as Raw Material details, date of manufacturing, its U. T., RT reports and other quality checks.

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18.APPLICATION OF SPIRAL- WELDED PIPE

The robust design and durability aspects of spiral welded pipes enables their wide applicability across many important areas. Water, wastewater, hydropower,and industrial are application where spiral-welded steel pipes are often utilized. Common uses within this application include the following. Transmission Mains Treatment Plant Piping Pump Station Piping Force Mains Intakes and Outfalls Oil and Gas Aqueducts etc.

BENEFITS OF SPIRAL- WELDED STEEL PIPES

Basically casters to onshore applications Durability Robustness Uniform stress distribution through the entire pipe higher rigidity than Lseam pipes

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19. CONCLUSION:

Spiral welded pipe offers cost benefits over UOE pipe and is used in utility duties successfully, but, acceptance of this product form for oil and gas applications is markedly varied. Industry requires better information on the technical issues related to specification and production of spiral welded pipe for oil & gas applications, so that cost savings can be realized wherever possible, without compromising safety. It is proposed that a global review of the state-of-the-art of spiral welded pipe for oil and gas applications be undertaken, similar to a successful TWI review of ERW/HFI line pipe. This will collate experience and concerns worldwide from pipe manufacturers, pipeline installation companies and operators, producing a single source document to provide guidance on appropriate use of spiral welded pipe, and identify areas where additional data is required to increase confidence.

BENEFITS: The benefit of wider adoption of spiral welded pipe for oil & gas service will result in reduced capital expenditure for pipeline development / replacement. The specific savings will depend heavily upon the project, pipeline length, location etc, but may be about 10-15% of material cost for a typical application

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