BROADBAND OVER POWER LINES (BPL)

Issue Date: January 2007

AbstractThe Internets proliferation has focused attention on the importance of providing widespread access to broadband services. Many studies show that such access can have profound positive socioeconomic impacts. Currently, however, broadband access is available to relatively few people worldwide. Broadband access has traditionally been provided via either DSL or cable. More recently, wireless and satellite broadband access has also gained significant momentum. Now, a thirdwiredoption is emerging: broadband over power lines (BPL). Power lines, however, were designed to deliver power, not communications, which poses three main hurdles for BPL. First, the variation in power line channel characteristics and performance over time and location must be appropriately considered. Second, measures must be put into place to ensure that BPL does not cause interference for the existing rightful owners of the spectrum. Third, the regulatory issues accompanying any new technology must be addressed. As these hurdles are overcome, as standards mature, and as inexpensive standards-based equipment becomes more widely available, the concerns about the risks of BPL investment and deployment will gradually diminish. Then, the right business and deployment models will enable BPL to capture a significant portion of the thriving broadband market. Key Wordsaccess BPL, BPL, broadband over power lines, capacity, channel characteristics, coupler, extractor, FCC, injector, in-house BPL, interference, low voltage (LV) line, medium voltage (MV) line, noise, NTIA, Part 15, PLC, power line communications, repeater, Subpart G, transformer bypass

INTRODUCTION

here are two basic means of providing communications services: wireless or wireline.

or even billions of dollars annually. These factors make widespread usage of wireless broadband relatively difficult and expensive! On the wireline side, there are currently two means of providing broadband services: digital subscriber line (DSL) through telephone company telephone lines, and cable modem through cable company coaxial cable lines. Now, with the advent of broadband over power lines (BPL or BoPL), a third wired option is emerging that uses electric utility power lines. Power lines are attractive for communications purposes because they have an omnipresence that reaches most homes and businesses, even in the most rural areas. This ubiquity implies a possible reduction in both time and cost for broadband deployment. In this sense, power lines, like RF spectrum, can be considered a very valuable national resource, or even a national treasure. And, of course, there is the inside-home power line wiring that can literally turn every outlet plug into a broadband communications access port.

Lee Lushbaugh
llushbau@bechtel.com

S. Rasoul Safavian, PhD

srsafavi@bechtel.com

On the wireless side, the main hurdle is scarceness of radio frequency (RF) spectrum and the associated huge cost. In the US, spectrum is viewed as a scarce national resource, closely guarded by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). Based on the FCCs personal communications services (PCS) auctions, the median value of 1 MHz of spectrum per pop was around US$1.68 [1]. Simple math shows that a bare minimum of 10 MHz of spectrum (a pair of 5 MHz, enough for only one channel of current frequency division duplex [FDD] technologies such as universal mobile telecommunications system [UMTS]) that covers 300 million US pops could cost close to US$5 billion! And there is the cost of deploying the network. On top of this, there are the ongoing site rental or lease fees, which, on a nationwide basis, could translate to hundreds of millions

2007 Bechtel Corporation. All rights reserved.

ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS, AND TERMS AC AMR AP ARRL AWGN BoPL BPL CALEA alternating current automated meter reading access point American Radio Relay League additive white gaussian noise broadband over power lines broadband over power lines Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act MV NEC NMS NOI NPRM NTIA OFDM OPERA OSS PC PCS PL PLC POP PSTN QoS R&D R&O RF RMS ROI SCADA SW UHF UMTS UPA USAC USF UTC VHF VoIP MTL multiconductor transmission line medium voltage (1 to 36 kV) numerical EM code network management system Notice of Inquiry Notice of Proposed Rule Making (FCC) National Telecommunications and Information Administration orthogonal frequency division multiplexing Open PLC European Research Alliance operations support system personal computer personal communications services power line power line communications point of presence public switched telephone network quality of service research and development Report & Order (FCC) radio frequency root mean square return on investment supervisory control and data acquisition shortwave (5.9 to 26.1 MHz) ultra high frequency universal mobile telecommunications system Universal Powerline Association Universal Service Administrative Company Universal Service Fund United Telecom Council very high frequency (30 to 300 MHz) voice over Internet Protocol

CENELEC European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization CFR Code of Federal Regulations (47 CFR addresses telecommunications) consumer premises equipment

CPE

CSMA/CA carrier sensing multiple access/collision avoidance DAS dBm DSL EHV EM EMC EMI ETSI FCC FDD FTTH GDP HDTV HF HV IEEE ISP LAN LF LV MAC MO&O distributed antenna system power in decibels with reference to 1 milliwatt digital subscriber line extremely high voltage (> 300 kV) electromagnetic EM compatibility EM interference European Telecommunications Standards Institute Federal Communications Commission frequency division duplex fiber to the home gross domestic product high definition television high frequency (3 to 30 MHz) high voltage (36 to 300 kV) Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Internet service provider local area network low frequency low voltage (< 1 kV) medium access control Memorandum of Opinion & Order (FCC)

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Considering that broadband penetration is currently less than 4 percent globally, the huge growth potential for the broadband market is obvious. BPL could provide a quick and attractive solution. Of course, successful BPL deployment requires not only a solid technical performance and field trial records, but also realistic and viable business and deployment plans. This paper first examines the current state of broadband access and the importance of having this access. Then, a quick overview of the electric power grid and how it can be altered to allow BPL sets the stage for a review of the current BPL players, field trials, commercial deployments, and standards bodies. This is followed by a brief examination of the potential benefits of BPL to the electric utility companies, service providers, and end-users and a look at the main challenges for BPL, namely harsh power line channel characteristics and performance issues, interference concerns, and the regulatory activities surrounding BPL. The paper continues with a review of the BPL business models and economic issues before presenting conclusions and closing remarks.

their omnipresence and the fact that they have already reached electrical power users in homes and offices, would seem to solve this access issue. In this sense, they may be considered as a possible third set of broadband wires reaching homes or businesses (the other two being DSL and cable modem). Of course, last-mile broadband access could also be provided wirelessly via fixed wireless, cellular, or satellite systems. The wiring inside a home or office can also be used to provide a local area network (LAN) connecting computers, printers, and smart appliances and basically turning every outlet into an Internet connection. This is sometimes referred to as last-inch access or connectivity. It is worth noting that while industrialized countries typically have severalalbeit sometimes prohibitively priceytelephony and broadband options, less developed countries may have access only to power line services and frequently lack well-established conventional telecommunications infrastructure. It is here that power line communications can be particularly useful and effective. Households connected to power lines may be quickly provided with telephony via voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and broadband Internet services, with minimal need for a new major infrastructure and its associated huge financial investment. For many of those underserved communities, this would be their first access to telephony, Internet, and related services. Importance of Access Numerous studies have shown a direct relationship between the availability and penetration rate of broadband and an improvement in productivity, quality of education, quality of health care, generation of new high-paying jobs, and facilitation of new channels for commerce. These, in turn, can all lead directly to national economic growth (with a direct impact on gross domestic product [GDP]) and even enhanced national security. According to Thomas L. Friedman, the frequently quoted op-ed commentator on globalization: Jobs, knowledge use and economic growth will gravitate to those societies that are the most connected, with the most networks and the broadest amount of bandwidthbecause these countries find it easiest to amass, deploy and share knowledge in order to design, invent, manufacture, sell, provide services, communicate, educate and entertain. Connectivity is now productivity. [4]

Considering that broadband penetration is currently less than 4 percent globally, the huge growth potential for the broadband market is obvious. BPL could provide a quick and attractive solution.

BROADBAND ACCESS Current State of Access Despite the widespread and spectacular growth of broadband technologies in the last few years, significant regions of the world, including rural and low income areas in the US, still do not have access to broadband services. In fact, out of the 6.7 billion people who currently inhabit our planet, roughly 3.7 billion (60 percent) have access to electrical power services, whereas only about 2 billion (30 percent) have access to some type of telephony services (wireline and/or wireless), and only roughly 250 million (3.7 percent) have access to broadband services [2, 3]. In the US, out of a population of 300 millionand using a relaxed definition of broadband as only 200 kbps in at least one direction (Internet to user [receiving or downlink] or user to Internet [transmitting or uplink])only roughly 50 million people currently have access to broadband services. A major hurdle to deploying broadband services is the high cost of deploying the so-called last-mile access. The last mile (also sometimes referred to as the first mile, local loop, or access network) is defined as the part of the network that links users with broadband services. From a communications perspective, power lines, due to

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US President George W. Bush, in April 2004, called for providing universal and affordable broadband access in every part of America by 2007 as part of his initiative to create A New Generation of American Innovation.

Unfortunately, both nationally and globally, a large digital divide, or gap, separates those with regular and effective access to digital technologies and those without. More specifically, a gap exists between people who have effective high-speed Internet access (the information haves) and those who do not (the information have-nots). Realizing the importance of broadband, US President George W. Bush, on April 26, 2004, called for providing universal and affordable broadband access in every part of America by 2007 as part of his initiative to create A New Generation of American Innovation [5]. With respect to the presidents broadband initiative, BPL could play an important role by offering: Affordability: With no need for new wiring or major infrastructure deployment, BPL creates an alternative broadband solution that could lead to lower prices for broadband consumers. Universality: BPL could facilitate and speed up connecting the rural and low income parts of America to broadband services, thereby helping to bridge the digital divide. Thus, power lines could perform double duty by delivering electrical power services and providing broadband information services. BPL deployment, in turn, holds the promise of

providing both telephony (via VoIP) and broadband services to all 3.7 billion people on our planet who have access to power lines! It is also worth mentioning that power line communications (PLC) is not a new subject, but one that has been around for decades. Several power companies around the globe have been using power lines for low-speed applications (a few kbps in the low frequency [LF] portion of the spectrum), such as power line metering and control. The recent renewed interest in using power lines for communications revolves specifically around providing BPL applications. The main idea is to use specialized equipment to slightly modify the existing power grid to allow it to also carry high speed data over a broad spectrum range (high frequency [HF], the lower portion of very high frequency [VHF], and potentially beyond) without causing unreasonable interference to the rightful incumbent users of those RF bands. Furthermore, this has to be done in an economically and financially viable manner.

ELECTRIC POWER GRID Overview of Grid Structure and Topology While the details of electric power grid structures and topologies differ from country to country,

Power Plant High Voltage Transmission Lines Power Substation

Medium Voltage Power Transmission Lines Substation

Low Voltage Transmission Lines Low Voltage Transmission Lines

Medium Voltage Transmission Lines

High Voltage Transmission (69 kV and Above)

Primary Distribution Medium Voltage (2.4 to 35 kV)

Secondary Distribution Low Voltage (Up to 600 V)

Figure 1. Typical Electric Power Grid

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MV HV EHV Generation Transformer HV HV Transformer MV MV MV MV

LV

LV LV LV LV LV Consumption LV

LV

LV

Transmission

Distribution

Figure 2. From Generation to Consumption: Power Grid Hierarchies

a power grid basically consists of power plants or generators, transmission substations, transmission lines, power substations with transformers to change voltage levels, and distribution lines that collectively generate and carry the electricity from power plants all the way to wall plugs. See Figure 1. Power plants are basically spinning electricity generators. Spinning can be performed by a steam turbine, and steam can be created by burning fossil fuel or from a nuclear reactor. A generators output is three-phase alternating current (AC) power at voltage levels in the thousands. The three single phases are synchronized and offset by 120 degrees. Three-phase current is chosen because singlephase AC goes through a full cycle (from zero to peak to zero to other peak and back to zero) at the line rate, which is 60 times per second in the US and 50 in the other parts of the world. With three synchronized phases, on the other hand, one of the three phases is nearing a peak at any given instant. More phases could be used, but this implies more wires and higher cost; three seems to be a good compromise between cost and performance. Power P, transferred over lines and delivered to customers, is equal to the product of voltage V and current I (P = IV ). Power loss in the line grows with the square of the current, that is, Ploss = Rline I2, where Rline is the line resistance and depends on the line material and increases with the length of the line. For a given generated P and a given Rline , to reduce Ploss , current I must be made as small as possible. This means that the line voltage must be made as large as possible, especially for long-distance transmissions. Transmission substations located next to power plants use large transformers to step up generator output from thousands of volts to hundreds of

thousands of volts (typically between 155,000 and 765,000 volts), thus allowing megawatts of power transmission over distances of 300 miles or more. At power substations, voltages are stepped down and lines are branched out to cover larger areas. This is performed successively, transforming and branching out from extremely high voltage (EHV, typically 155 to 765 kV) to high voltage (HV, typically 45 to 155 kV), and then from HV to medium voltage (MV, typically 2 to 45 kV), and finally from MV to low voltage (LV, typically 100 to 600 V) for delivery to homes or businesses. The result is a tree-structured power distribution hierarchy. Basically, EHV and HV are used to transmit AC electric power, and MV and LV are used to distribute it. See Figure 2. The structures needed to support EHV and HV lines are typically tall, massive towers. MV and LV lines, on the other hand, are typically mounted on street poles. In the US, street poles are typically 10 meters high, located 50 meters apart, and support three wires that carry the three separate phases, plus a neutral (possibly grounded) wire. A network of MV lines is usually referred to as the primary distribution; a network of LV lines is the secondary distribution. In the US, at the primary distribution level, most power lines are aerial or overhead. At the secondary distribution level, particularly in newer urban areas, most lines run underground. Overhead lines are more susceptible than underground lines to producing radiation interference and to picking up interference. But underground lines are used less due to the prohibitive cost of burying cables. In the US, MV lines typically run between 15 and 50 km. As mentioned, levels and structures of branching, network architectures, and voltage levels vary from country to country. For instance, in the US,

A power grid basically consists of power plants or generators, transmission substations, transmission lines, power substations with transformers to change voltage levels, and distribution lines that collectively generate and carry the electricity from power plants all the way to wall plugs.

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typically fewer than a dozen homes are served by a single MV/LV transformer, whereas in Japan this number is about 30 and in Europe it is several hundred. This affects not only the communications characteristics, but also the economic viability of a BPL system. (BPL business models are examined later in this paper.) Altering the Power Grid To Allow BPL EHV and HV lines are usually too noisy to transmit broadband communications signals; only MV and LV lines are used for BPL. MV lines are usually less branched than LV lines, making point-to-point connections possible. MV networks allow communication over longer distances because of their weaker signal attenuation and lower noise level. To use power lines for broadband communications, the broadband signal must be injected into and extracted from the lines through couplers. LV couplers may be capacitive or inductive, depending on distribution system topology, performance requirements, and cost. In capacitive coupling, a capacitor is responsible for

Couplers should be easy-to-install passive devices with low failure rates that can be used outdoors and installed on energized lines.

the actual coupling, and the signal is modulated onto the networks voltage waveform. In inductive coupling, an inductor is used to couple the signal onto the networks current waveform. Inductive couplers are known to be rather lossy, but since they require no physical connection to the network, they are safer to install on energized lines than capacitive couplers. MV couplers are typically inductive. It is important that couplers be easy-to-install passive devices with low failure rates that can be used outdoors and installed on energized lines. Line noise, limitations on the amount of signal power that can be injected into power lines without causing unacceptable interference for other spectrum users, and signal attenuation as the signal traverses the line make it necessary to regenerate or repeat the signal periodically. This can be done by using MV couplers to couple the broadband signal off of the MV line so that it can be regenerated if necessary and amplified before being fed back onto the MV line through another coupler. Repeaters, on the other hand, could add latency (especially if the signal is regenerated)

Access BPL
Internet Mobile Network PSTN

In-House BPL

Backhaul Network

Backhaul Box MV Coupler

MV Lines MV Coupler MV Lines

MV Lines MV Coupler Repeater Box

LV Lines

LV Coupler Transfer Bypass Box

Power Substation HV Transmission Lines

PC VoIP Phone

Power Generator

MV Coupler MV Line LV Line Transformer LV Coupler LV Line to Home/Business LV Lines to Homes/Businesses

Coax

Transfer Bypass Box

Figure 3. Typical BPL Architecture

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Substation with Modem

Injector Repeater

Transformer Bypass System Coupler

Option 1

Through Transformer Router Extractor Coupler Wireless Transmitter with Antenna

Option 2

Wireless Connection

Option 3

Wireless Receiver with Antenna

Figure 4. BPL Deployment Options

and could also create single points of failure, because a single bad repeater can bring down an entire communications line. The distribution transformers that change voltage levels between MV and LV lines are particularly harsh on the weak broadband signal. Transformers, which are intended to pass low frequencies near 50 or 60 Hz, appear as open circuits for the passage of higher frequency signals and typically attenuate and distort the weak broadband signal beyond reconstruction and usability. This implies that BPL signals going between MV and LV lines need to bypass the transformers. Typically, the bypass box can also have built-in repeating functionality at a small incremental cost. The recent capability to effectively and safely bypass transformers has been instrumental to the success and deployment of BPL. A point-of-presence (POP) is needed to connect the BPL network to a backhaul network such as the Internet, a public switched telephone network (PSTN), or a mobile network. The connection is made through a backhaul network box coupled to an MV distribution line, typically next to a power substation where multiple MV lines are connected. The backhaul network box is typically a bidirectional device that converts data formats, aggregates and concentrates uplink data streams, provides routing functionality, helps allocate bandwidth and resources, generates billing and charging data, and provides various backhaul Ethernet interfaces to fiber optic or wireless connections. Figure 3 illustrates a typical BPL architecture. A BPL network, like any other communications network, also requires a network management

system (NMS) or operations support system (OSS) to observe and manage network resources and perform billing and other back-end tasks. BPL Deployment Options The MV and LV line portions of the BPL are usually referred to as the access BPL, while the portion inside a home or office using the inside wiring is called the in-house BPL. BPL can be deployed either as end-to-end BPL or as hybrid BPL, using one of the three options illustrated in Figure 4. An end-to-end BPL system uses both access BPL and in-house BPL, i.e., power lines are used all the way from the power substation to the end user. Two of the three BPL deployment options involve the access BPL portion of an end-to-end system: the BPL signal can either (1) bypass the MV/LV transformer (as does CURRENT Technologies equipment) or (2) go through the transformer (as does MainNet Communications equipment). The third BPL deployment option is hybrid BPL. In this option, typically only the MV lines are used, and a fixed wireless network replaces the LV lines and in-house BPL (Amperion takes this approach). In hybrid BPL, the bypass box does not couple the broadband signal to/from the LV line but converts it to/from a wireless format and delivers it to the wireless access point (AP) also located on the pole. These different deployment options have their associated performance and cost tradeoffs. For end-to-end BPL, bypass boxes and LV couplers must be installed on all LV lines, and in-house BPL modems are required. For hybrid BPL, bypass boxes with wireless conversion boards,

The MV and LV line portions of the BPL are usually referred to as the access BPL, while the portion inside a home or office using the inside wiring is called the in-house BPL. BPL can be deployed either as end-to-end BPL or as hybrid BPL.

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wireless APs, and existing standard wireless user modems are required, but LV transformer bypasses and LV couplers are not. Also associated with hybrid BPL are the usual existing issues regarding wireless performance in unlicensed spectrum and the current state of wireless quality of service (QoS), security, and so forth.

Globally, the number of BPL players (electric utility companies, equipment manufacturers, investors, etc.), field trials, and commercial deployments has been growing steadily in the last few years.

INDUSTRY PLAYERS, FIELD TRIALS, COMMERCIAL DEPLOYMENTS, AND STANDARDS BODIES Industry Players, Field Trials, and Commercial Deployments Globally, the number of BPL players (electric utility companies, equipment manufacturers, investors, etc.), field trials, and commercial deployments has been growing steadily in the last few years. In the US alone, there have been more than 39 trial deployments [6]. CURRENT Technologies is currently offering commercial BPL services with Duke Energy in Cincinnati, Ohio, with plans to expand elsewhere within Dukes 1.5-million-customer service territory in Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky. CURRENT Technologies is also planning to deploy BPL services to potentially 2 million residents of Dallas, Texas, using TXU Electric delivery. The City of Manassas, Virginia, has been offering citywide BPL services using MainNet equipment since 2005. Progress Energy and EarthLink plan to provide BPL services in North Carolina using Amperion equipment. There are also commercial deployments in Spain, Germany, Korea, Chile, Brazil, and the UK. In Spain, Endesa began service in 2003 in Saragossa and Barcelona; Iberdrola initiated service in Madrid and Valencia in the same year. Power Plus Communications has started offering services in Germany, as has Scottish Southern Electric in the UK. Standards Bodies Standardization is of paramount importance to the success of any new technology such as BPL. To this end, the Open PLC European Research Alliance (OPERA), European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), Universal Powerline Association (UPA), European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC), and HomePlug Powerline Alliance have been leading the activities and creating their own standards.

OPERAa consortium of currently 37 organizations, including electric utility companies, PLC equipment manufacturers, and universitiesis a research and development (R&D) project with funding from the European Commission to create and promote open global specifications for low-cost, high-performance, high-speed power line communications. Its first specification documents were released on February 21, 2006. These specifications will be promoted through international standardization organizations, including IEEE and ETSI [7]. The IEEE BPL study group drove the creation of the BPL-related Pxxxx working groups. The IEEE P1675 Standard for Broadband over Power Line Hardware Working Group is chartered to develop standards for power line hardware installation and safety. The IEEE P1775 Powerline Communication Equipment Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Requirements Testing and Measurement Methods Working Group is focused on PLC equipment, electromagnetic compatibility requirements, and testing and measurement methods. The IEEE P1901 Draft Standard for Broadband over Power Line Networks: Medium Access Control and Physical Layer Specifications Working Group is responsible for defining the medium access control (MAC) and physical layers for high speed (greater than 100 Mbps at the physical layer) for both in-house and access BPL. The standard will focus on transmission frequencies below 100 MHz. The specifications of these working groups are scheduled for release in 2007 [8]. The UPA has also released a number of specifications related to different aspects of power line technology. Three main specifications are the UPA coexistence specification, released in June 2005; the UPA access BPL specification, endorsed by OPERA and released in February 2006; and the UPA in-house BPL specification, called Digital Home Standard v1.0 and also released in February 2006. The UPA also works with and through international standardization bodies such as IEEE and ETSI to promote its standards [9]. The HomePlug Powerline Alliance was founded in 2000 and currently has over 65 member companies. The alliances standards (HomePlug 1.0 and AV) are for home networking over power lines (in-house BPL). The HomePlug 1.0 specification allows for speeds up to 14 Mbps. The current HomePlug AV specification allows for speeds greater than 100 Mbps (suitable for

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high definition television [HDTV] and VoIP) and is compatible with HomePlug 1.0. In 2004, to provide a harmonized end-to-end BPL standard, the HomePlug Powerline Alliance started looking into creating an access BPL standard planned for completion by early 2007 [10].

automated meter reading (AMR) with remote disconnect (and reconnect) and theft detection Real-time video surveillance of the sensitive national power infrastructure (e.g., grid and substations) Benefits to End Users End users can benefit from BPL deployment because: BPL could create competition and thus help reduce end-user service prices. BPL could provide high user throughputs, as discussed later in this paper. In some places, BPL may be the only viable choice (e.g., in rural areas), although satellitebased service may also be of interest in these areas. BPL could be used for smart appliances, connected and controlled through a PC and remotely. While these devices could possibly be controlled through a DSL or a cable modem connection, BPL may provide a more integrated (neater) solution. BPL may provide a more ubiquitous and reliable service coverage area. The explosive growth of the Internet and the recent deregulation of telecommunications in the US and Europe have led to the renewed interest in BPL. Extensive research on BPL channel modeling [1320] and a considerable amount of interference analysis [2125] have taken place. Concurrently, there have been a large number of field trials and measurements to validate various models [2131], along with advances in signal processing such as the newer adaptive modulation and coding techniques [28] and faster, cheaper processors and electronics. Nonetheless, despite its renewed attractiveness, BPL must overcome implementation challenges as well as regulatory concerns before it can become a viable avenue of broadband access. The next sections of this paper examine in more detail the key implementation challenges and regulatory concerns facing BPL.

POTENTIAL BENEFITS Benefits to Service Providers From a service providers point of view, BPL could provide large cost savings. The first, and by far the most important, factor is that the transmission medium, i.e., the power lines, is already in place. There is no need to purchase spectrum or to hang, dig, or lay new wires, because most of the required infrastructure already exists. There is also no need for the difficult, expensive, and time-consuming site acquisition, permitting, and licensing tasks needed for a typical deployment. Given the omnipresence of power lines, BPL also holds the promise of being able to provide genuinely ubiquitous coverage. These factors imply potential cost and time savings that could level the BPL deployment playing field a bit more compared with DSL and cable, both of which have significant deployment head starts. Benefits to Electric Utilities For the electric utility companies, BPLs benefits are twofold: (1) It can create new sources of revenue from an existing investment, and (2) it can help create a smart grid for the utility companies that would enable enhanced utility applications [11, 12] such as: System monitoring from any point on the electric grid Load shifting and balancing Optimized asset utilization and management Performance of preventive maintenance and improvement of service reliability and customer satisfaction by avoiding power outages and emergencies Advanced supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) Fault detection, fault analysis, and adaptive self-healing Automatic outage detection, restoration detection, and verification BPL-enabled electricity meters that enable time-of-day and real-time pricing through

The explosive growth of the Internet and the recent deregulation of telecommunications in the US and Europe have led to the renewed interest in BPL.

IMPLEMENTATION CHALLENGES The Nature of the Power Grid The most obvious challenges to implementing BPL arise from the fact that power line grids were originally developed to transmit electrical power

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(high voltage AC at low frequencies of 50 or 60 Hz) from a small number of sources (the generators) to a large number of sinks (the end customers). Power grids were neither designed nor devised for communications purposes. Even though the interest in using power lines for communications is not new, their early use for data transmission was mainly for simple, low-data-rate (a few kilobits per second) remote monitoring and meter reading applications at a low frequency (typically only up to a few hundred kilohertz).

segments, the types of power line equipment connected (such as capacitor banks and transformers), and the kinds of loads connected all affect channel characteristics. Furthermore, impedance mismatches caused by unterminated stubs and line branches cause signal reflections and create a frequency-dependent fading channel, much like the multipaths typically seen in mobile wireless communication channels. MV and LV lines have very different noise characteristics. The MV grid is usually less branched than the LV grid, and LV lines are typically terminated at time-varying consumer electrical appliances. Noise on the LV grid is typically the sum of background noise, impulsive noise, and synchronous/nonsynchronous (with the power line frequency) colored noise, generated primarily by electrical appliances; this noise is certainly not an additive white gaussian noise (AWGN). On the MV grid, the on/off switching of the capacitor banks used to correct the power factor typically causes high noise peaks [14]. At the same time, background noise and narrow-band noise are dominant on MV lines. The background noise is environmental noise that is highly dependent on weather, location, and elevation. The narrow-band noise is caused by RF interferers such as amateur or shortwave (SW) radios and varies randomly across location and time. Noise levels on MV lines are typically as much as 20 to 30 dB higher than on LV lines in the frequency range of 1 to 20 MHz [21]. Channel Attenuation Power lines have been modeled in the literature by using either statistical approaches based on extensive measurements or deterministic approaches based on multiconductor transmission line (MTL) theory and numerical analysis. Carsons earlier MTL model [17] allowed for ground impedance but did not include ground admittance, which cannot be ignored in higher frequencies and/or under poor conductive ground plane conditions. The subsequent MTL models in [18, 19] include ground admittance. A simple matched uniform MV line segment with no connected device or junctions could have as little as 1 dB/km ohmic absorption or attenuation loss. For a complex overhead MV network, on the other hand, the amplitude of the channel frequency response (or, equivalently, the channel attenuation) in the frequency range of 10 kHz to 100 MHz shows highly frequency-dependent attenuations of as high as 40 dB/km caused by reflections from abrupt discontinuities and

The main challenges to BPL arising from the nature of the power grid have been the extremely harsh, unpredictable, time-andlocation-variable characteristics of the power line channel, and potential interference concerns (in both directions).

The main challenges to BPL arising from the nature of the power grid have been the extremely harsh, unpredictable, time-and-location-variable characteristics of the power line channel, and potential interference concerns (in both directions) [1325]. Because power lines are not twisted and have no shielding, they can produce electromagnetic radiation that is easily detected by radio receivers. For the same reasons, power lines can also easily pick up nearby radio frequency signals. Thus, addressing mutual interference is not only a challenge, but becomes a valid regulatory concern. A related challenge facing BPL centers around data sensitivity. To prevent interception of sensitive data by unintended and unauthorized receivers, data encryption is a must. The fact that the power line grid is a shared medium and BPL is a contention-based system creates additional challenges. Because all users share the available channel capacity or bandwidth, as the number of users goes up, per-user throughput goes down. In the US, there are typically 50 homes per substation. An average available throughput of 50 Mbps implies roughly an average of 1 Mbps per user, a speed on par with the current average speeds delivered by DSL or cable modem. However, BPL is thought to be distance limited, similar to DSL. Thus, the distance between the customers home and the supplying substation is a factor in the bit rate available to the user. Channel Characteristics and Capacity Power Line Noise In general, a power line channel is a very harsh and noisy transmission medium. The noise on the line is typically time, location, and frequency dependent. Time-variable behavior is due mainly to the dynamically changing nature of the load connected to the power lines. Line branching, the number and types of branches, the lengths of line

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mismatched impedances [23]. LV network losses are typically higher than MV network losses and could be as high as 100 dB/km [14]. Performance Improvements Conditioning the grid can improve power line performance by minimizing impedance mismatches, terminating stubs, filtering noise, etc. These options, however, may deteriorate or diminish the advantages of power line grids. A better approach is to use modulation and coding schemes robust enough to work in the hostile power line channel environment. Currently, most BPL products use orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM), well known for its excellent robustness against channel distortions such as multipath and impulsive noise and for its good spectral efficiency, reasonable cost, and ability to avoid certain bands. In BPL systems, multiple user modems are connected in a bus or star topology. Some type of MAC must be implemented to provide communications through shared bandwidth on power lines. To provide the necessary QoS for applications that require bandwidth and performance guarantees, such as video streaming, the carrier sensing multiple access/collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) protocol may be used. This widely used scalable protocol, also used in the wireless fidelity (IEEE 802.11) MAC layer, is suitable for power line channel characteristics. Capacity and Spectral Efficiency Depending on the bandwidth used on the power lines (typically a frequency range between 2 and 100 MHz), on the BPL injection power level (typically 1 to 30 dBm), and on load and channel conditions, throughputs in the range of tens, or even hundreds, of megabits per second and spectral efficiencies in the range of 1 to 20 bps/Hz can be achieved [20]. Theoretical and field trials have also claimed throughputs of the same order of magnitude, and even in the gigabit-per-second range if larger frequency bandwidths in the upper VHF/ultra high frequency (UHF) spectrum and higher input signal powers are used. In the US, however, this may not be a viable option, considering that licensed spectrum in the VHF and UHF bands is heavily occupied. A system developed by Corridor Systems, Inc., in the US uses MV power lines in frequency ranges from VHF through microwave as distributed antenna systems (DASs) to extend existing cellular network coverage [29]. The cellular network RF signal is picked up by the Corridor

equipment, converted into a proprietary BPL format, and injected into and transported down the MV lines. At cellular dead zones, the Corridor equipment converts the signal back to its original format for re-radiation by local antennas. Thus, MV lines are used to carry cellular signals to areas too difficult or expensive to reach by cellular networks, conventional repeaters, or DASs. Interference Concerns and Regulatory Issues Unlike the twisted wires of telephone companies and the shielded cables of cable companies, long unshielded, untwisted, overhead power lines can act as large antennas and be natural sources and targets of electromagnetic interference (EMI). In addition, BPL signals tend to radiate from the injectors and repeaters spaced along the power lines. This raises concerns about interfering with the rightful owners of the radio spectrum in the BPL range of operation [30]. The most concerned and vocal opponents of BPL in the US are amateur radio operators, through the American Radio Relay League (ARRL), and government agencies. The US FCC started examining the use of power lines for broadband communications services by issuing a Notice of Inquiry (NOI) on April 23, 2003. The NOI sought information on potential interference from BPL systems and associated changes that may be needed to accommodate BPL systems in Part 15 of the FCCs rules published in the Telecommunications Code of Federal Regulations (47 CFR). Part 15 addresses RF devices. Part 15, Subpart A, addresses general issues. Section 15.3 defines terms used in the FCCs rules. Subpart B addresses unintentional radiators, with Section 15.109 defining the radiated emission limits. Subpart C deals with intentional radiators, with Section 15.209 defining the corresponding general requirements and radiated emission limits. Section 15.3 (f) defines a carrier current system as a system, or part of a system, that transmits RF energy by conduction over electric power lines. A carrier current system can be designed so that the RF signals are received by conduction directly from the connection to the electric power lines (unintentional radiator) or so that the signals are received as over-the-air radiation from the electric power lines (intentional radiator). Carrier current systems operate on an unlicensed basis under Part 15. As a general condition of operation, Part 15 devices may not cause harmful interference to authorized radio services and must accept any interference they receive.

Unlike the twisted wires of telephone companies and the shielded cables of cable companies, long unshielded, untwisted, overhead power lines can act as large antennas and be natural sources and targets of EMI.

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The FCC amended the existing Section 15.3 to include Sections 15.3 (ff) for access BPL and 15.3 (gg) for in-house BPL, as follows: Section 15.3 (ff) Access BPL: A carrier current system installed and operated on an electric utility service as an unintentional radiator that sends radio frequency energy on frequencies between 1.705 MHz and 80 MHz over medium voltage lines or over low voltage lines to provide broadband communications and is located on the supply side of the utility services points of interconnection with customer premises. Section 15.3 (gg) In-House BPL: A carrier current system, operating as an unintentional radiator, that sends radio frequency energy by conduction over electric power lines that are not owned, operated or controlled by an electric service provider. The electric power lines may be aerial (overhead), underground, or inside the walls, floors or ceilings of user premises. In-House BPL devices may establish closed networks within a users premises or provide connections to Access BPL networks, or both. In its response to the FCCs NOI, the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) of the US Department of Commerce described the federal governments usage of the 1.7 to 80 MHz spectrum, identified associated interference concerns, and outlined the studies it planned to conduct to address those concerns. In April 2004, the NTIA published its Phase 1 Study technical report, NTIA Report 04-413, Potential Interference from Broadband over Power Line (BPL) Systems to Federal Government Radiocommunications at 1.7 80 MHz [31]. In this report, the NTIA defined interference risks to radio reception in the immediate vicinity of overhead power lines used by an access BPL system. The radio systems to be considered in interference analyses included a land vehicular receiver, a ship-borne receiver, a receiver using a rooftop antenna (e.g., a base or fixed-service station), and an aircraft receiver in flight. The study included various measurement campaigns and the use of numerical electromagnetic code (NEC) software to characterize BPL signal radiation and propagation and to evaluate interference risks. The report also suggested means for reducing interference risks and identified techniques for mitigating local interference should it occur. The Phase 1 Study focused on simple BPL deployment models. The Phase 2 Study is focusing on evaluating the effectiveness of the NTIAs Phase 1 recommendations and on the results of a study of potential interference via

ionospheric propagation of BPL emissions resulting from the mature large-scale deployment of BPL networks. As of the date of this paper, the Phase 2 Study report had not yet been released. Some of the NTIAs Phase 1 Study highlights include: In the 1.7 to 80 MHz spectrum, the dominant propagation modes are ground waves, space waves, and sky waves. Ground waves consist of direct waves, ground-reflected waves, and surface waves. Direct waves decay at a rate proportional to the square of their distance from their source. Ground-reflected waves (along with direct waves) decay at the rate of distance raised to the power of four. Groundreflected waves may be of no major concern if the radiator is relatively far from ground. Surface waves propagate close to the ground and have a substantially higher rate of attenuation than direct waves. Ground wave propagation is pertinent on BPL signal paths below the power line horizon. Space waves involve only direct waves and occur over elevated signal paths, e.g., signal paths above the power line horizon. Sky waves are particularly important in the HF band (for BPL, 1.7 to 30 MHz) and have temporal and spatial variability. Here, signal paths are represented as rays reflected and refracted by the ionosphere. Sky waves can extend the signals reach to several kilometers. The space around a radiator is typically divided into three regions: reactive nearfield, radiating near-field, and far-field. These regions are typically defined as:
3

The FCC amended the existing Section 15.3 to include Sections 15.3 (ff) for access BPL and 15.3 (gg) for in-house BPL.

r < 0.62
3

Reactive Near-Field

0.62 r>2

D < r < 2 D2

Radiating Near-Field

Far-Field

where r is the distance from the radiator, D is the largest linear dimension of the radiator, and is wavelength. For BPL systems, the victim receiver is typically in the radiating near-fields, although far-fields are important because of sky waves and at distances seen by aircraft receivers.

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The NTIA also provided some recommendations and suggested some interference mitigation techniques; these include: Mandatory registration of certain parameters of planned and deployed BPL systems A requirement for BPL devices to be frequency agile (i.e., to have notching and retuning capabilities) and to have remote power reduction and shutdown capabilities to eliminate interference if any is reported Use of minimal required power Avoidance of locally used radio frequencies Use of symmetry and differential mode signal injection to minimize radiation [31, 23]. Symmetry is defined in terms of impedance between conductors and ground. If, for a two-wire line, the impedance between each conductor and ground is equal, the line is symmetrical or balanced. Balanced lines are necessary for differential mode transmission, in which the currents are equal in magnitude and flow in opposite directions on the conductors. The fields radiating from these conductors tend to cancel each other. Subsequent to the above activities, the FCC released its Notice of Public Rule Making (NPRM) in February 2004, and received more than a thousand comments and replies from many concerned parties [32]. The FCC eventually finalized its decision by adopting its Report & Order (R&O) FCC 04-245 on October 14, 2004 (published in the Federal Register on January 7, 2005) [33]. The FCC considered various petitions to reconsider the R&O and subsequently amended the Part 15 rules to modify some of the previous specified exclusion zones and add a few new exclusion zones. However, the FCC denied other petitions to reconsider other aspects and published the final Memorandum Opinion & Order (MO&O) on August 7, 2006, and the new amended rules in 47 CFR. The FCC basically decided to keep BPL under existing Part 15 unlicensed device rules and added Subpart G for access BPL. More specifically, Sections 15.601, 15.607, 15.611, and 15.613 of this new Subpart include the following new rules: Exclusion Bands: These are certain bands of frequencies within which access BPL operations are not permitted. Exclusion Zones: These are certain geographic areas within which access BPL operations are not allowed.

Consultation: A consultation is to be held between an entity operating access BPL and a licensed public safety or other designated point of contact, for the purpose of avoiding potential harmful interference. Equipment Authorization: Because BPL is a new technology, the FCC has required that all BPL-related equipment be certified. Certification is an equipment authorization by the FCC or its designated entities, as opposed to verification, which is a manufacturers selfapproval procedure. The rules adopted in the R&O require that all access BPL devices manufactured, imported, marketed, or installed 18 months or later after the Federal Register publication of the R&O (i.e., after July 7, 2006) must comply with the newly adopted requirements of Subpart G of Part 15 for BPL devices, including certification of the equipment. Databases: Publicly available databases are to be created and maintained by an industrysponsored entity recognized by the FCC and the NTIA. They are to contain information regarding existing and planned access BPL systems. Each database should be available within 30 days before initiation of the specific systems service and should include the following information: The name of the access BPL provider The frequency of the access BPL operation The postal ZIP codes served by the specific access BPL operation The manufacturer and type of access BPL equipment and its associated FCC identification, etc. Complete contact information for a person at the BPL operators company in charge of resolving any interference complaints The proposed or actual date of access BPL operation Interference Mitigation and Avoidance: Access BPL systems are basically required to adhere to the NTIA recommendations for interference mitigation and avoidance mentioned above. Field Limits: Access BPL systems that operate in the 1.705-to-30-MHz band over MV lines must comply with the radiation limits for intentional radiators provided in Section 15.209. Systems operating in the

Because BPL is a new technology, the FCC has required that all BPL-related equipment be certified. Certification is an equipment authorization by the FCC or its designated entities, as opposed to verification, which is a manufacturers self-approval procedure.

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Table 1. Radiation Limits

Power Line Type LV or MV LV MV Frequency (MHz) 1.70530 3080 3080 Field Strength Limits (V/m) 30 100 90 Measurement Distance (m) 30 3 10

emissions at each frequency within the frequency range of the access BPL device. The distance from the measurement antenna to power line is the slant distance or range, as shown in Figure 5. Because the distances r specified in the guidelines may coincide with unsafe locations (e.g., the middle of a highway), the guidelines also specify how to extrapolate a distance correction factor from measurements made at distances other than as specified in the rules. For frequencies below 30 MHz, the measured values are reduced by 40 log(10) (30/r); for frequencies at or above 30 MHz, the measured value is increased by 20 log(10) (r/10). The guidelines also specify the type of measurement antenna (loop or linear) and the type of detector (peak, quasi-peak, or root mean square [RMS]). It is worth mentioning again that the FCC recognized the interference potential of BPL systems. That is why the FCC decided that, even though access BPL systems remain under the newly added Subpart G of Part 15 for unlicensed device rules, their operations cannot cause harmful interference and the systems must accept any outside interference. Furthermore, any BPL resultant interference must be corrected and resolved by the BPL operator immediately, without ceasing broadband service to the public. On November 3, 2006, the FCC also decided to classify BPL-enabled Internet access services as information services. By virtue of being considered information services, BPL services become free from many, if not all, common carrier regulations and associated fees and taxes. Specifically, the FCCs Order finds that the transmission

The FCC recognized the interference potential of BPL systems. That is why the FCC decided that, even though access BPL systems remain under the newly added Subpart G of Part 15 for unlicensed device rules, their operations cannot cause harmful interference and the systems must accept any outside interference.

30-to-80-MHz band over MV lines must comply with the radiation limits for unintentional radiators provided in Section 15.109 (b). Systems operating over LV lines must comply with the Section 15.109 (a) and (e) limits. Radiation emission limits for access BPL equipment are summarized in Table 1. The FCC also decided to eliminate conducted emission limits and testing for BPL systems because of the danger and inconvenience associated with measuring power line conducted emissions. Measurement Procedure and Guidelines: The FCC requires that access BPL system emissions be measured in situ to demonstrate compliance with the new Part 15 rules. Measurements are to be made at a minimum of three overhead and three underground representative points and according to the measurement guidelines outlined in Appendix C of the NPRM. For access BPL systems installed on overhead power lines, to take into account the effect of line length, the received measurement antenna will be moved down-line parallel to the power line, starting from the access BPL signal injection equipment location, to find the maximum

Distance Specified in Rule (e.g., 30 m for <30 MHz)

Ring Antenna

a xtr

po

lat

2 at

0o

r4

og 0l

(R

Figure 5. Interference Measurement Setup

Sl an tR an ge
Antenna Height

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component underlying BPL-enabled access services is telecommunications and that providing this telecommunications transmission component as part of a functionally integrated, finished BPL-enabled Internet access service offering is an information service. The FCCs decision was based on its desire to regulate similar services in a similar manner. The FCCs Order places BPL-enabled Internet access services on an equal regulatory footing with other broadband services such as DSL or cable modem Internet access services [34]. The FCC may, however, still decide to require BPL operators who provide VoIP services to contribute to the Universal Service Fund (USF), based on a percentage of their gross revenues. The USF was created by the FCC in 1997, following enactment of the Telecommunications Act of 1996, primarily to ensure that rural and low-income customers receive levels of telecommunications service similar to those in nonrural areas. All telecommunications carriers that provide service internationally and between states are required to contribute to the USF. The Universal Service Administrative Company (USAC) submits fund size and administrative cost projections for each quarter in accordance with FCC rules. The FCC also released a new R&O in May 2006 regarding law enforcement and emergency services [35]. More specifically, the FCC resolved a second R&O in the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA) and Broadband Access Services proceedings. As a result of this FCC Order, VoIP- and facilitiesbased broadband access providers, such as BPL operators who provide VoIP services, must bring their networks into compliance with wiretap, surveillance, and other official law enforcement and emergency services requirements by May 14, 2007.

End users interface only with this company for all customer care, billing, and support. The electric utility company only collects leases on its facilities, and may also receive smart-grid services from the same BPL service builder/provider. This model requires the lowest investment from the electric company and provides it with a new source of income along with its existing investments. This is the lowest risk, if any, model for the electric company. The Wholesale Model: In this model, the electric company builds out the BPL network and leases it to another company, which wholesales the bandwidth to communications service providers or Internet service providers (ISPs) that operate the network and interface with customers. This is a medium risk option, and the BPL network can be used to provide smart-grid services for the electric company. The Service Provider Model: This is the most aggressive model. The electric utility company builds and operates the BPL network and interfaces directly with the customers. Here, the electric company needs to acquire the communications expertise required to build, operate, and maintain the BPL network. Of course, the electric company must also market the broadband services. This model carries the most risk, but offers the greatest potential return on investment (ROI). Currently, precise data regarding BPL deployment costs is not publicly available. Various estimates show that BPL costs per home passed could range from $50 to $300, depending on the electric grids architecture, the need for repeaters, the number of homes connected to the substation, and similar factors. This cost includes not only the cost of equipment and installation, but also the cost over time of maintenance, equipment replacement, and upgrades. Consumer premises equipment (CPE) costs currently range from $50 to $200. Assuming a conservative initial deployment with a subscriber penetration rate of 10 percent (blended over rural, suburban, and urban areas), which is typical of current initial deployment results, and a $100-per-home-passed deployment cost and a $100 CPE cost, the initial BPL deployment cost becomes about $1,100 per subscriber. This number is in line with numbers published in the final BPL report from United Telecom Council (UTC) Research and The Shpigler Group,

In November 2006, the FCC decided to classify BPL-enabled Internet access services as information services. By virtue of being considered information services, BPL services become free from many, if not all, common carrier regulations and associated fees and taxes.

BUSINESS MODELS AND ECONOMIC ISSUES epending on their particular business and financial objectives, electric utility companies can choose one of three business models with respect to their BPL deployment. As presented below, each model has successively more associated risks and rewards: The Landlord or Retail Model: In this model, the electric utility company leases its facilities to another company (preferably one with prior communications experience) that builds and operates the BPL system.

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FTTH Satellite Access Method BPL Cable Modem DSL Wireless $1,007 $900 $1,408

$1,825

In this formulation, PBPL becomes null if its cost and data rates are the same as those of existing broadband services. Of course, this formulation does not take into account the value that BPL offers by providing smart-grid services. (Assessing the potential revenue and savings from BPL smart grid services would be the subject of another study.)

CONCLUSIONS
$828 $800

As the regulatory uncertainties and interference issues surrounding BPL dissipate, and with the success of many field trials and early commercial deployments, the release of various standards, and the growing availability of reasonably priced standardized and reliable equipment, the road to BPL is becoming increasingly well paved.

E
1,200 1,600 2,000

400

800

Deployment Cost per Subscriber ($)

Figure 6. Deployment Costs for Different Access Technologies

which compares deployment costs for various broadband technologies [36, 37]. See Figure 6. It is also interesting to note that, even though deploying BPL in rural areas could be less expensive than deploying DSL, cable, or fiber, it may still be prohibitively expensive per capita. With this in mind, BPL operators may choose, instead, to compete with DSL, cable, and other service providers in suburban and urban areas where some sort of broadband services already exists. Ironically, this would defeat the main reason that the FCC adopted BPL: to accelerate the availability of broadband services in underserved areas. Furthermore, prior experience and research have shown that BPL service needs to be either significantly better (e.g., have higher user throughputs), cheaper, or both, to be able to convince subscribers to change existing services to BPL or to attract new subscribers to this new technology. With this in mind, BPL service penetration PBPL would typically be some function of BPL service cost CBPL , including CPE, installation and setup, and a monthly service fee; the service costs of existing broadband services Cexisting ; the available data throughput of BPL RBPL ; and the data throughput of existing services Rexisting [38]. A simple formulation could be:

ven though the importance and direct socioeconomic impact of access to broadband services are well understood, currently only 4 percent of the Earths population has access to some type of broadband services, typically via DSL or cable modem. BPL offers a new, potentially powerful alternative means of providing high-speed Internet services, VoIP, and other broadband services to homes and businesses by using existing MV and LV power lines. Because roughly 60 percent of Earths inhabitants have access to power lines, BPL could play a significant role in bridging the existing digital divide. But the success of BPL, like that of any new technology in its infancy, depends on more than strong theoretical results or successful field testing. It also depends greatly on the appropriate business models and deployment plans. As the regulatory uncertainties and interference issues surrounding BPL dissipate, and with the success of many field trials and early commercial deployments, the release of various standards, and the growing availability of reasonably priced standardized and reliable equipment, the road to BPL is becoming increasingly well paved and broadband over power lines seems to be well energized. Indeed, BPLs future looks very bright!

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

PBPL = Min {100, Max {0, [( Cexisting CBPL) + [ log2(RBPL) log2 ( Rexisting )]]}}
where is a weighting factor (e.g., 10 or 20) that reflects the importance of performance versus cost.

ne of the authors, S. Rasoul Safavian, would like to express his gratitude for useful discussions with Professor Mohsen Kavehrad of the Electrical Engineering Department at the Pennsylvania State University, several staff members of the Federal Communications Commission, and David Shpigler of The Shpigler Group.

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TRADEMARKS Amperion is a trademark of Amperion, Inc. CURRENT Technologies is a registered trademark of CURRENT Communications Group, LLC. EarthLink is a registered trademark of EarthLink, Inc. HomePlug is a registered trademark of the HomePlug Powerline Alliance. P1675 is a trademark of the IEEE.

[13] M. Gotz, M. Rapp, and K. Dostert, Power Line Channel Characteristics and Their Effect on Communication System Design, IEEE Communications Magazine, Vol. 42, No. 4, April 2004, pp. 78-86. [14] H. Ferreira, O. Hooijen, and H. Grove, Power Line Communications: An Overview, IEEE Conference Proceedings for AFRICON 1996, Stellenbosch, South Africa, September 1996, Vol. 2, pp. 558563. [15] M. Zimmermann and K. Dostert, A Multipath Model for the Powerline Channel, IEEE Transactions on Communications, Vol. 50, No. 4, April 2002, pp. 553559. [16] M. Zimmermann and K. Dostert, Analysis and Modeling of Impulsive Noise in Broad-band Powerline Communications, IEEE Transactions on Electromagnetic Compatibility, Vol. 44, No. 1, February 2002, pp. 249258. [17] J.R. Carson, Wave Propagation in Overhead Wires with Ground Return, Bell Systems Technical Journal, Vol. 5, May 1926, pp. 539554. [18] M. DAmore and M.S. Sarto, A New Formulation of Lossy Ground Return Parameters for Transient Analysis of Multi-Conductor Dissipative Lines, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 12, No. 1, January 1997, pp. 303314. [19] P. Amirshahi and M. Kavehrad, High-Frequency Characteristics of Overhead Multiconductor Power Lines for Broadband Communications, IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, Vol. 24, No. 7, July 2006, pp. 12921303. [20] P. Amirshahi and M. Kavehrad, Transmission Channel Model and Capacity of Overhead MultiConductor Medium-Voltage Power-Lines for Broadband Communications, IEEE Proceedings of CCNC 2005, Las Vegas, NV, January 2005, pp. 354358. [21] J.J. Lee, Measurements of the Communications Environment in Medium Voltage Power Distribution Lines for Wideband Power Line Communications, Proceedings of ISPLC 2004, Zaragoza, Spain, pp. 6974. [22] M. Zhang and W. Lauber, Evaluation of the Interference Potential of PLC Systems, Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE International Symposium on Power Line Communications and its Applications (ISPLC-2006), Orlando, FL, March 2006, pp. 296301. [23] P.S. Henry, Interference Characteristics of Broadband Power Line Communication Systems Using Aerial Medium Voltage Wires, IEEE Communications Magazine, Vol. 43, No. 4, April 2005, pp. 9298. [24] R.G. Olsen, Technical Considerations for Broadband Powerline (BPL) Communication, Proceedings of 15th International Zurich Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC Zurich 05), Zurich, February 2005. [25] L.S. Cohen, J.W. de Graaf, A. Light, and F. Sabath, The Measurement of Broadband over Power Line Emissions, Proceedings of the 2005 IEEE International Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC 2005), Chicago, IL, Vol. 3, pp. 988991.

REFERENCES
[1] T. Farrar, ATC: The Future of Mobile Satellite Services? TMF Associates report, published February 2006/updated August 2006 (http://www.tmfassociates.com/ATC.html). Information about and images of the Earth in a website by The Ozone Hole, Inc. (http://www.solcomhouse.com/earth.html). C. Howson, Technology Outlook for Broadband & Mobile Networks, BROADWAN Workshop, Cuenca, Spain, November 2005 (http://www.telenor.no/broadwan/ WorkshopNovember2005/ Howson_BROADWAN_Cuenca_Workshop.pdf). T.L. Friedman, The Lexus and The Olive Tree: Understanding Globalization, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2000. Promoting Innovation and Competitiveness President Bushs Technology Agenda (http://www.whitehouse.gov/infocus/ technology/). United Power Line Council (UPLC) BPL Deployments Map (http://www.uplc.utc.org/ file_depot/0-10000000/0 10000/7966/conman/ BPL+Map+12_12.pdf). Open PLC European Research Alliance (OPERA) (http://www.ist-opera.org/). IEEE BPL Study Group and Working Group meeting information re Standardization of Broadband Over Power Line Technologies (http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/bpl/ index.html). Universal Powerline Association (UPA) (http://www.upaplc.com/ page_viewer.asp?category=Home&sid=2).

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7] [8]

[9]

[10] HomePlug Powerline Alliance (http://www.homeplug.org/en/index.asp). [11] S. Houle, Building the Smart Grid TXU BPL Initiative (http://www.gulfcoastpower.org/ default/2-06meeting-houle-austin.pdf). [12] J.M. Bradbury, Broadband over Power Lines a Foundation for the Utility of the Future, Energy Summit 2006 (http://www.enrg.lsu.edu/ conferences/energysummit2006/ Jay_Bradbury_2.pdf).

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[26] W. Liu, H. Widmer, and P. Raffin, Broadband PLC Access Systems and Field Deployment in European Power Line Networks, IEEE Communications Magazine, Vol. 41, No. 5, May 2003, pp. 114118. [27] B. Malowanchuk, Broadband over Power Line (BPL) Interference: Fact or Fiction? La Revue des Radioamateurs Canadiens (Canadas Amateur Radio Magazine), July & August 2004, pp. 3944 (http://www.arrl.org/tis/info/HTML/plc/ files/Barry.pdf). [28] H. Dai and H.V. Poor, Advanced Signal Processing for Power Line Communications, IEEE Communications Magazine, Vol. 41, No. 5, May 2003, pp. 100107. [29] Corridor Systems, Inc. (http://www.corridor.biz/). [30] ARRL comments on ET 03-104, the FCC Notice of Inquiry on Broadband Over Power Line (http://www.arrl.org/announce/regulatory/ et03-104). [31] NTIA Report 04-413, Potential Interference from Broadband over Power Line (BPL) Systems to Federal Government Radio Communications at 1.7 - 80 MHz Phase 1 Study, Volume I, NTIA, U.S. Department of Commerce, April 2004 (http://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/fccfilings/ 2004/bpl/). [32] FCC 04-29, Notice of Proposed Rule Making, in the Matter of Carrier Current Systems, including Broadband over Power Line Systems and Amendment of Part 15 regarding new requirements and measurement guidelines for Access Broadband over Power Line Systems, February 2004 (http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/ edocs_public/attachmatch/FCC-04-29A1.pdf). [33] FCC Report and Order 04-245, ET Dockets 04-37 and 03-104, in the Matter of Amendment of Part 15 regarding new requirements and measurement guidelines for Access Broadband over Power Line Systems and Carrier Current Systems, including Broadband over Power Line Systems, October 2004 (http://www.hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/ attachmatch/FCC-04-245A1.doc). [34] W.D. Gardner, FCC Endorses Broadband over Powerline, TechWeb Technology News, November 3, 2006 (http://www.techweb.com/ wire/mobile/193501695). [35] FCC 06-56, Second Report and Order and Memorandum Opinion and Order, ET Docket No. 04-295 and RM-10865, in the Matter of Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act and Broadband Access and Services, released May 2006/finalized December 2006. [36] Opportunities in Broadband over Power Line, Report by The Shpigler Group and UTC Research, July 2004 (http://www.igigroup.com/st/pages/ utc.bopl.html). [37] David Shpigler, private communication, December 2006.

[38] P.A. Brown, Identifying Some TechnoEconomic Criteria in PLC/BPL Applications and Commercialization, Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium on Power Line Communications (ISPLC) and its Applications, Vancouver, Canada, April 2005, pp. 234239.

BIOGRAPHIES
Lee Lushbaugh, principal vice president, Bechtel Corporation, and general manager, Telecommunications, Americas, provides day-to-day oversight for both business development and operational activities in the region. During 2006, the regional staff reached approximately 1,500 employees working in 35 markets across the continental United States. Previously, Lee has served as director of engineering and as the program director of several nationwide wireless programs and a fiber deployment program. He joined Bechtel Telecommunications in 1996 as vice president/manager of engineering and was the initial developer of its engineering department. Lee joined Bechtel Corporation in 1974 and, before joining Bechtel Telecommunications, held both functional and operational roles in the fossil power and nuclear business lines, including the plant design, civil, and mechanical engineering disciplines. Lee received a BS in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Maryland. He is a Registered Professional Engineer in various states, a member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and a Six Sigma Champion. Rasoul Safavian brings more than 15 years of experience in the wired and wireless communications industry to his position as Bechtel Telecommunications vice president of Technology, Americas Regional Business Unit. He is charged with establishing and maintaining the overall technical vision for Bechtels American markets and providing guidance and direction to its specific technological activities. In fulfilling this responsibility, he is well served by his background in cellular/PCS, fixed microwave, satellite communications, wireless local loops, and fixed networks; his working experience with major 2G, 2.5G, 3G, and 4G technologies; his exposure to the leading facets of technology development as well as its financial, business, and risk factors; and his extensive academic, teaching, and research experience. Before joining Bechtel in June 2005, Dr. Safavian oversaw advanced technology research and development activities, first as vice president of the Advanced Technology Group at Wireless Facilities, Inc., then as chief technical officer and vice president of engineering at GCB Services. Earlier, over an 8-year period at LCC International, Inc., he progressed through several positions. Initially, as principal engineer at LCCs Wireless Institute, he was in charge of CDMA-related programs and activities. Next, as lead systems engineer/senior principal engineer,

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he provided nationwide technical guidance for LCCs XM satellite radio project. Then, as senior technical manager/senior consultant, he assisted key clients with the design, deployment, optimization, and operation of 3G wireless networks. Dr. Safavian has spoken at numerous conferences and industry events and has been published extensively, including technical papers in the previous three issues of the Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal. Dr. Safavian is quite familiar with the Electrical Engineering departments of four universities: The George Washington University, where he has been an adjunct professor for several years; The Pennsylvania State University, where he is an affiliated faculty member; Purdue University, where he received his PhD in Electrical Engineering, was a graduate research assistant, and was later a member of the visiting faculty; and the University of Kansas, where he received both his BS and MS degrees in Electrical Engineering and was a teaching and a research assistant. He is a senior member of the IEEE and a past official reviewer of various transactions and journals.

January 2007 Volume 5, Number 1

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