MEC-207 ON

WHAT ARE THE MANUFACTURE PARAMETERS FOR THE SELECTION OF PUMPS FOR DIFFERENT APPLICATIONS

SUBMITTED TO: MR. HIMANSHU KAUSHAL

SUBMITTED BY: NAVNEET SINGH KAMRA SEC: K4901 ROLL NO. B 50 REG NO. 10902903

I WOULD LIKE TO THANKS ALL THOSE WHO HAVE ENCOURAGED ME TO SUBMIT THIS PROJECT RELATED TO WHAT ARE THE MANUFACTURE PARAMETERS FOR THE SELECTION OF PUMPS FOR DIFFERENT APPLICATIONS. AS A TERM PAPER IT IS AN EXTREMELY ORDOUS JOB TO ACKNOWLEDGEMENT THE INVALUABLE HELP RENDERED WHO DIRECTLY AND INDIRECT CONTRIBUTION TO MAKE FEAT AS POSSIBLE FOR ME. I CERTAINLY FEEL ELATED TO EXPRESS MY DEEP SENSE TO GRATITUDE TO ALL OF THEM. I THANK MY FLUID MECHANICS TEACHER TO EXTEND HIS HANDS FOR HELP, CO-OPERATION AND KINDNESS.

Contents
Introduction Application Pump selection criteria Pump pricing Pump component and option Analysis of certain elements to be evaluated when selecting a pump Material Pump Repair Types of pumps What is accuracy requirement Refrences

INTRODUCTION
A pump is a device used to move fluids, such as liquids, gases or slurries. A pump displaces a volume by physical or mechanical action. Pumps fall into five major groups: direct lift, displacement, velocity, buoyancy and gravity pumps. Their names describe the method for moving a fluid. The engineer or operations personnel can be assisted in the selection of pump based on the practical plant application. Include in this design guideline are the two common types of pumps; centrifugal and positive displacement pump When sizing the pump, the understanding of concept of cavitation is very important. Cavitation is an abnormal condition that can result in loss of production, equipment damage and worst of all,personnel injury. To prevent pumps from having this problem, the correct design should be followed by applied the correct theory when carrying out the activities of pump sizing and selection. Bernoullis theory is applied in calculation of the NPSH of the pumps.

Applications

Metering pump for gasoline and additives. Pumps are used throughout society for a variety of purposes. Early applications includes the use of the windmill or watermill to pump water. Today, the pump is used for irrigation, water supply, gasoline supply, air conditioning systems, refrigeration (usually called a compressor), chemical movement, sewage movement, flood control, marine services, etc. Because of the wide variety of applications, pumps have a plethora of shapes and sizes: from very large to very small, from handling gas to handling liquid, from high pressure to low pressure, and from high volume to low volume. Priming a pump Liquid and slurry pumps can lose prime and this will require the pump to be primed by adding liquid to the pump and inlet pipes to get the pump started. Loss of "prime" is usually

due to ingestion of air into the pump. The clearances and displacement ratios in pumps used for liquids and other more viscous fluids cannot displace the air due to its lower density. pumps as public water supplies

First European depiction of a piston pump, by Taccola, c.1450. One sort of pump once common worldwide was a hand-powered water pump over a water well where people could work it to extract water, before most houses had individual water supplies. From this came the expression "parish pump" for "the sort of matter chattered about by people when they meet when they go to get water", "matter of only local interest". However water from pitcher pumps are more prone to contamination since it is drawn directly from the soil and does not undergo filtration, this might cause gastrointestinal related diseases. Today, hand operated village pumps are considered the most sustainable low cost option for safe water supply in resource poor settings, often in rural areas in developing countries. A hand pump opens access to deeper groundwater that is often not polluted and also improves the safety of a well by protecting the water source from contaminated buckets. Pumps like the Afridev pump are designed to be cheap to build and install, and easy to maintain with simple parts. However, scarcity of spare parts for these type of pumps in some regions of Africa has diminished their utility for these areas. Sealing Multiphase Pumping Applications Multiphase pumping applications, also referred to as tri-phase, have grown due to increased oil drilling activity. In addition, the economics of multiphase production is attractive to upstream operations as it leads to simpler, smaller in-field installations, reduced equipment costs and improved production rates. In essence, the multiphase pump can accommodate all fluid stream properties with one piece of equipment, which has a smaller footprint. Often, two smaller multiphase pumps are installed in series rather than having just one massive pump. For midstream and upstream operations, multiphase pumps can be located onshore or offshore and can be connected to single or multiple wellheads. Basically, multiphase pumps

are used to transport the untreated flow stream produced from oil wells to downstream processes or gathering facilities. This means that the pump may handle a flow stream (well stream) from 100 percent gas to 100 percent liquid and every imaginable combination in between. The flow stream can also contain abrasives such as sand and dirt. Multiphase pumps are designed to operate under changing/fluctuating process conditions. Multiphase pumping also helps eliminate emissions of greenhouse gases as operators strive to minimize the flaring of gas and the venting of tanks where possible.

PUMP SELECTION CRITERIA

Selection of process pumps can be mainly divided on the basis of liquid characteristics as well as on other following conditions: Pumps for viscous liquids Pumps for clear liquids Pumps for low flow Pumps for corrosive liquids Pumps for slurry Pumps for specific service Pumps for high pressure service Pump for low energy Pumps for low maintenance cost Pumps with high standard of safety in operation Pumps for specific speed. 1. PUMP CURVE Pump selection is made through the curves. Heads read on the curves are for single stage. When less than five stages are used to achieve your selection, apply the required efficiency deduction points identified on the curve data sheet. Select the motor size by using the HP formula: HP= GPM x FT of Head x SG 3960 x EFF SG : water = 1.0 sea water = 1.03 2. SHAFT SIZING Determine shaft size required according to the pump total down thrust. As a rule of thumb, if your pump is less than 20ft long and your total head is less than 200ft, your Thrust will rarely go above 5000lbs. If you have extreme condition (long pump, high head, many impellers) it is recommended to do the following calculation: (Impeller weight x Number of Stages) + Shaft Weight + (K Factor x Feet of Head) = TOTAL THRUST For a Total Down Thrust is 1500 lbs and your pump requires a 75HP motor at 1760 RPM you should use at least a 1-1/4 shaft size. If the HP limit is close to your required HP, use the next shaft size. 3. COLUMN SIZING Standard column size indicated on the curve data sheet should be used and verified against the TURBINE

Friction loss. It is recommended not to exceed 5 feet of friction loss per 100 feet of column for your design flow. If the friction loss value is above 5 feet per 100 feet, than use next column size.

PUMP PRICING
PUMP PRICING Pricing and selection can be made by using the pricing forms that are included at the end of this section. Use standard pump construction sheet or modified vertical turbine construction standard pump construction should be used if your pump requirements corresponds to the description in the factory assembled- short coupled pump section. Otherwise, you the other form needs to be used.

Pumps component and options

PUMP COMPONENTS AND OPTIONS

1. PUMP BOWLS
1.1 Standard Bowl assemblies consist of: Pump bowl (casing) with bronze impeller Bowl bearing either bronze (for clean water), rubber (for abrasive) or rubber and bronze Standard is bronze. Rubber or bronze/rubber are available at no extra cost Rubber bearing temperature limit is 140F Suction case fitted with grease lubricated bearing

Discharge case Bowl shaft is 416SS standard 2. STRAINER Strainer needs to be added. Galvanized basket clip-on strainer is the most common. Cone strainer are usually used for deep well applications (above 200ft deep). 3. COLUMN ASSEMBLIES Column assemblies include the column pipe (threaded or flanged), line shaft and sleeves. The space available for taking the pump apart should be considered before pricing 10ft column pieces. Oil circulates into an enclosing tube to lubricate bearings. It is not recommended on potable water application in case of contamination. Above 100ft settings it is recommended to prevent the lack of lubrication in the upper bearing until the water reaches the top on deep well applications. It is recommended to use rubber spider bearing retainers every 40ft on oil lubricated applications. 4. DISCHARGE HEAD Cast Iron Discharge head: Standard heads suitable for most applications. Pump weight (bowl assembly and column assembly) should not exceed the cast iron maximum load as indicated in the selection table. If pump load is too high one of the following change should be considered: Use bigger discharge head Use base plate Use fabricated steel discharge head Cast iron discharge head can accept: Packing for product lubricated pumps Oil lubricated fittings Mechanical seals (Seal box and mechanical seal should be added to the price) Fabricated steel head might be required when using mechanical seals to allow space for spacer coupling. Fabricated Discharge head: It is recommended to use these heads when: Particular dimension needs to be met for discharge Pump application is beyond the capacity of the cast iron discharge head Mechanical seal needs to be used if pump head is above 400ft. Fabricated head comes bare with no accessories. Add required accessories from table and mechanical seal if required. Below surface Discharge Head: When below ground discharge is required. Head is fabricated steel and comes with accessories for packing box and packing or mechanical seal housing (add mechanical seal). 5. BASE PLATE Base plates are used to set the pump on a concrete base. Base plates are selected according to the

discharge head used and the pit diameter. Fabricated steel discharge head base can be built to fit the pit dimension. 6. MOTOR Vertical Hollow Shaft Motor: Most common motor used. Pump is supplied with a C-1045 head shaft to be inserted in the motor and coupled to the pump. Steady bushing can be added if pump is fitted with mechanical seal or for increased stability. Vertical Solid Shaft Motor: Motor usually recommended when mechanical seals are used for better stability. It is recommended to: Use spacer coupling for easy of maintenance and installation Use a fabricated head or motor stand for increased space. 7. COATING For certain application, special coating might be required. Coatings would be used for example in sea water

Analysis of certain elements to be evaluated when selecting a pump.

Liquid composition: this is of fundamental importance for correctly choosing the materials of construction for the various pump parts which come into contact with the liquid. The more precise the information is regarding the composition of the liquid pumped, the more precise materials selection will be for pump components, such as gaskets and any mechanical seals. For example: different concentrations of the same acid may require materials of construction with different characteristics. Dry operationit's always advisable to protect the pump from dry operation. One of the most widely used methods still is however the employment of a minimum tank level that interrupts pump operation as soon as a dangerous level for the pump is reached. Operating temperaturesknowledge regarding the maximum and minimum temperature is important (in addition to the normal operating temperature) for the reasons discussed in the preceding paragraph. The temperature of the fluid to be handled has important effects on the materials: very low temperatures can make particular plastic material become fragile whereas high temperatures may result in softening and deformation of the components. Solids in suspensionin this case also, knowing the nature and quantity of the suspended particles is crucial. In fact there are materials which have different abrasion resistance but identical resistance against chemical aggression. The nature of the suspended solids can also influence the same selection of the pump type: in certain cases a vertical pump might be needed without guide bushings or it might be necessary to avoid pumps with magnetic coupling Installation of the pumpensure that the pump can draw from a zone of the basin or tank where the liquid has favorable characteristics. For example if the liquid has the tendency to form sludge sediments on the bottom of the tank, then the liquid must be kept continuously agitated to prevent the formation of said sludges. Or also the pump intake must be positioned

high enough to avoid pumping slurries that are excessively concentrated or which might obstruct suction.

Best Efficiency Point (BEP) All pumps (both the centrifugal pumps and the positive-displacement pumps) have operational limits. Specifically, centrifugal pumps have certain limitations which, if not properly evaluated can drastically reduce their working life. The BEP (Best Efficiency Point) is not only the maximum operating point but it is also the point where the speed and pressure at the impeller and the spiral stator are equal. As the operating point diverges from the Best Efficiency Point, the speed changes which in turn modifies the pressure acting on one of the sides of the impeller. This irregular pressure on the impeller manifests itself as a radial thrust which deflects the pump shaft causing, among other things:

an excessive load on the bearings an excessive deflection of the mechanical seal irregular wear on the shaft bearing

The damages that might occur then consist of a shorter bearing life or a broken shaft. Radial loading is maximized when everything closed. If operating outside of the recommended operating range, damage to the pump could be caused by excessive speed and turbulence. Vortexes can create cavitation damage which very quickly can destroy the pump and impeller casing.

When choosing a pump, it's very important that unrealistic safety margins not be calculated or that inappropriate information not be included in the evaluation. The true curve could exceed the recommended operating range resulting in series consequences. It is best to verify the actual operating conditions for the pump the during while it is in operation (using a flowmeter and/or a pressure gauge) in order to make the adjustments needed to ensure the proper working conditions and a long service life.

Pumping power
The power imparted into a fluid will increase the energy of the fluid per unit volume. Thus the power relationship is between the conversion of the mechanical energy of the pump

mechanism and the fluid elements within the pump. In general, this is governed by a series of simultaneous differential equations, known as the Navier-Stokes equations. However a more simple equation relating only the different energies in the fluid, known as Bernoulli's equation can be used. Hence the power, P, required by the pump:

where P is the change in total pressure between the inlet and outlet (in Pa), and the fluid flowrate is given in m^3/s. The total pressure may have gravitational, static pressure and kinetic energy components; i.e. energy is distributed between change in the fluid's gravitational potential energy (going up or down hill), change in velocity, or change in static pressure. is the pump efficiency, and may be given by the manufacturer's information, such as in the form of a pump curve, and is typically derived from either fluid dynamics simulation (i.e. solutions to the Navier-stokes for the particular pump geometry), or by testing. The efficiency of the pump will depend upon the pump's configuration and operating conditions (such as rotational speed, fluid density and viscosity etc).

For a typical "pumping" configuration, the work is imparted on the fluid, and is thus positive. For the fluid imparting the work on the pump (i.e. a turbine), the work is negative.e power required to drive the pump is determined by dividing the output power by the pump efficiency. Furthermore, this definition encompasses pumps with no moving parts, such as a siphon.

Materials
Carefully selecting the materials of construction, whether for the structure, or for the seals and for the wear components, made as a function of plant type and the fluids to be handled, allows the problems related to pumping of liquids " at risk" to be solved safely and efficiently; even in the most complex working processes. PP (Polypropylene) Characterized by good mechanical properties, broad resistance against chemical agents and a high operating temperature. Not suitable for strongly oxidizing concentrated acids and halogens (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine). Maximum operating temperature: 90C PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) Material widely used in plant engineering applications. Resistance to acids, bases, saline solutions and organic compounds. Not suitable for aromatic and chlorinated hydrocarbons. Maximum operating temperature: 45C PVDF (Polyvinylidene fluoride) Features an exceptional resistance to acids, saline solutions, aliphatic, aromatic and chlorinated hydrocarbons, alcohols and halogens. Not suitable for organic bases, alkaline solutions, ketones, esters and ethers. Indicated for the semiconductor industry and for liquids to be protected from contamination.

Maximum operating temperature: 100C

PE-HD (High-density polyethylene) Chemical resistance similar to polypropylene. Valued for its abrasion resistance. Maximum operating temperature: 60C EPDM (Ethylene-propylene rubber) Elastomer with high modulus of elasticity, strong resistance to acids, bases, alcohols ketones. Not recommended for hydrocarbons, oils and greases. Maximum operating temperature: 90C FPM (Fluoroelastomer rubber) Features high thermal stability, low permanent deformation and high chemical resistance against acids, solvents, lubricants or fuels. Sintered Ceramic (Al203 99%) Base material for seal rings and parts subject to wear. Superior hardness, wear resistance and resistance against chemical agents. Not recommended in the presence of hydrogen fluoride, sodium carbonateand sodium hypochlorite at high concentrations and temperatures. Sintered silicon carbide (SiC, without free silicon) Material with characteristics more resistant than aluminum oxide: greater resistance to thermal shock and chemically inert at the operating temperatures of the plastic pumps. PTFE (Polytetrafluorethylene) Chemically inert up to 250C in the presence of any chemical agent, the only substances for which it is not recommended are cast alkaline metals, chlorine trifluoride and gaseous fluorine at high temperatures. It may be 'loaded' with materials such as glass or ceramic or with graphite and carbon. Excellent for seal components and wear bushings. FEP - PFA Fluoropolymer with chemical resistance characteristics similar to PTFE but with less permeability. Suitable for welding processes: it is used for covering mechanical seal and Oring springs. .

Pump Repairs
Examining pump repair records and MTBF (mean time between failures) is of great importance to responsible and conscientious pump users. In view of that fact, the preface to the 2006 Pump Users Handbook alludes to "pump failure" statistics. For the sake of convenience, these failure statistics often are translated into MTBF (in this case, installed life before failure). In early 2005, Gordon Buck, John Crane Inc.s chief engineer for Field Operations in Baton Rouge, LA, examined the repair records for a number of refinery and chemical plants to obtain meaningful reliability data for centrifugal pumps. A total of 15 operating plants having nearly 15,000 pumps were included in the survey. The smallest of these plants had about 100 pumps; several plants had over 2000. All facilities were located in the United States. In addition, considered as "new," others as "renewed" and still others as "established." Many of these plantsbut not allhad an alliance arrangement with John Crane. In some cases, the alliance contract included having a John Crane Inc. technician or engineer on-site to coordinate various aspects of the program. Not all plants are refineries, however, and different results can be expected elsewhere. In chemical plants, pumps have traditionally been "throw-away" items as chemical attack can result in limited life. Things have improved in recent years, but the somewhat restricted space available in "old" DIN and ASME-standardized stuffing boxes places limits on the type of seal that can be fitted. Unless the pump user upgrades the seal chamber, only the more compact and simple versions can be accommodated. Without this upgrading, lifetimes in chemical installations are generally believed to be around 50 to 60 percent of the refinery values. It goes without saying that unscheduled maintenance often is one of the most significant costs of ownership, and failures of mechanical seals and bearings are among the major causes. Keep in mind the potential value of selecting pumps that cost more initially, but last much longer between repairs. The MTBF of a better pump may be one to four years longer than that of its non-upgraded counterpart. Consider that published average values of avoided pump failures range from $2600 to $12,000. This does not include lost opportunity costs. One pump fire occurs per 1000 failures. Having fewer pump failures means having fewer destructive pump fires. As has been noted, a typical pump failure based on actual year 2002 reports, costs $5,000 on average. This includes costs for material, parts, labor and overhead. Let us now assume that the MTBF for a particular pump is 12 months and that it could be extended to 18 months. This would result in a cost avoidance of $2,500/yrwhich is greater than the premium one would pay for the reliability-upgraded centrifugal pump.

Type of Pump
The selection of type and construction of a pump is very important to meet the process specification and proper application. Knowledge of the variety of pumps in the market should be review. Pumps are devices that impart a pressure increase to a liquid. The pressure rise found in pumps can vary tremendously, which is a very important design parameter along with the liquid flow rate. This pressure rise can range from simply increasing the elevation of

the liquid to increasing the pressure hundreds of atmospheres. The application of pumps basically requires knowledge of fluid flow fundamentals In todays industry, the used of pumps may be classified in two general types, centrifugal (dynamic) and positive displacement pumps. Positive displacement pumps work by allowing a fluid to flow into some enclosed cavity from a low-pressure source, trapping the fluid, and then forcing it out into a high-pressure receiver by decreasing the volume of the cavity. Examples are fuel and oil pump in most automobiles, the pumps on most hydraulic systems and the heart of most animals. The general types of the positive displacement pumps are as below: a) Reciprocating Pump Reciprocating pumps create and displace a volume of liquid, their displacement volumes, by action of a reciprocating element. Liquid discharge pressure is limited only by strength of structural parts. A pressure relief valve and a discharge check valve are normally required for reciprocating pumps.

Reciprocating pumps can be further classified into three types of pump as below, i) Piston Pumps ii) Packed Plunger Pumps iii) Diaphragm Pumps

b) Rotary Pump Rotary pumps function with close clearances such that a fixed volume of liquid is displaced with each revolution of the internal element. Rotary pumps included i) Gear Pump ii) Lobe Pump iii) Vane Pumps iv) Screw Pumps Centrifugal pumps are dynamic pumps. A centrifugal pump raises the pressure of the liquid by giving it a high kinetic energy and then converting that kinetic energy to work. It normally consists of an impeller (a wheel with blades), and some form of housing

with a central inlet and a peripheral outlet. The impeller is mounted on a rotating shaft and enclosed in a stationary casing. Casings are generally of two types: volute and circular. The impeller design and the shape of the casing determine how liquid is accelerated though the pump. The general types of the centrifugal pumps are as below: a) Overhung pump A pump with the impeller(s) cantilevered from its bearing assemblies is classified as an overhung pump.

b) Between bearings pump A pump with the impeller(s) located between the bearings is classified as a between bearings pump. The pump may be single-stage (one impeller), twostage, or multistage. It can be axially (horizontally) split or radially split.

c) Vertically suspended pump A pump with the impeller(s) cantilevered vertically and the suction nozzle typically submerged is classified as a vertically suspended pump. c) Sealless pump Sealless pumps are special pumps which do not require shaft seals. Sealless pumps have two types which are canned motor and magnetic drive. It normally used in process involve extremely hazardous fluid which leakage is cannot be tolerated. d) Submersible pump Submersible pumps are designed for the pump and inside driver components are completely surrounded by the pumped fluid. e) Horizontal self-priming pump Horizontal self-priming pumps are designed to create a vacuum at the pump inlet. This enables the pump to suck fluid into its casing. The suction nozzle of the pump can therefore be located above the level of liquid being pumped. Centrifugal pumps are used in more industrial applications than any other kind of pump. This is primarily because these pumps offer low initial and upkeep costs. Traditionally these pumps have been limited to low-pressure-head applications, but modern pump designs have overcome this problem unless very high pressures are required. The single-stage, horizontal, overhung, centrifugal pump is by far the most commonly type used in the chemical process industry. (3) Basically, pump selection is made on the flow rate and head requirement and with other process considerations, such as material of the construction pumps for the corrosive chemical service or for the fluid with presence solids in the stream. Process Requirements Parameters In designing the pump, the knowledge of the effect of parameters pump capacity, NPSH, fluid viscosity, specific gravity and pumping temperature to the pump are very important. All of these parameters will affect the selection and design of the pump which will affect the performance of the pump in the process. Pump capacity is a parameter plays an important role when selecting the pump. Capacity means the flow rate with which liquid is moved or pushed by the pump to the desired point in the process. It is commonly measured in either gallons per minute (gal/min) or cubic meters per hour (m3/hr). The capacity usually changes with the changes in operation of the process. A minimum required flow rate need to be specified, this is important to determining if a minimum flow bypass is required for the selected pump to avoid pump overheating and mechanical damage.

Pumping maximum temperatures is important in deciding pump construction style and pump cooling and mechanical seal requirements. The minimum operating temperature is to ensure that the material has adequate impact strength. Specific gravity is parameter determines the pump head required to produce a desired pressure increase. For pumps with limited head capability such as centrifugal pumps, it affects pressure rise capability. Pump power requirements are also affected by specific gravity. Viscosity is important in the selection of pump type and has a significant effect on centrifugal pump performance. Minimum values of viscosity are important in determining rotary pump (positive displacement pump) performance while maximum viscosity is important in determining debits to centrifugal pump performance. Fluid solid content will affect the pump design. It affected the aspects of the design for the flow characteristic, consideration design of erosion resistance, flow passage size, impeller style, peripheral speed, design features to disintegrate large particles, and shaft sealing design. This parameter has to add in the data sheet for design. Other process requirement such as flexibility for expansion should be consider as well. This is important for future capacity expansion; it helps to minimize the cost of expansion because to replace the pump will be a large sum of money. Working capacity of pump should always be design for more than 20% extra design capacity.

Centrifugal pump A centrifugal pump is a rotodynamic pump that uses a rotating impeller to increase the pressure and flow rate of a fluid. Centrifugal pumps are the most common type of pump used to move liquids through a piping system. The fluid enters the pump impeller along or near to the rotating axis and is accelerated by the impeller, flowing radially outward or axially into a diffuser or volute chamber, from where it exits into the downstream piping system. Centrifugal pumps are typically used for large discharge through smaller heads.

References 1. ^ Pump classifications 2. ^ http://www.pumps.org/content_detail_pumps.aspx?id=1768 3. ^ Karassik, Igor J.; Messina, Joseph P.; Cooper, Paul; Heald, Charles C. (2001). Pump Handbook (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 9781591243618. 4. ^ a b http://www.mt-online.com/mt-rokstories-places-holder/73-october/839-pumpstatistics-should-shape-strategies.html 5. ^ http://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article/submersible-slurry-pumps-in-highdemand-2006-10-06 6. ^ Wasser, Goodenberger, Jim and Bob (November 1993). "Extended Life, Zero Emissions Seal for Process Pumps". Routledge. ISBN TRP 28017. 7. ^ Hill, Donald Routledge (1996). A History of Engineering in Classical and Medieval Times. London: Routledge. p. 143. ISBN 0415152917. http://books.google.com/books?id=MqSXc5sGZJUC&pg=PA143&dq=Taccola+first +piston&as_brr=3&hl=en. 8. ^ a b http://pump-zone.com/seals/seals/sealing-multiphase-pumping-applications.html 9. ^ http://www.sealsentinel.com/interphex/Day1-Story2.html 10. ^ http://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article/vacuum-pump-new-on-sa-market-200504-22 11. ^ PUMP-FLO Total Head Calculator and Pump Selection Tool