From Oakley Sunglasses to Coal Mining

Danielle Wolbert

2012
Theres a lot of thing we do in everyday life that we never take the time to really think about the effects it could have tomorrow. A 42.5 mile drive to buy a birthday present can be linked all of the way to the two huge industries of coal mining and steel production, not to mention the extreme uses of energy. One little action can have a massive positive feedback loop that was never imagined.

Richard Stockton College of New Jersey Tait Cirenjes Environmental Issues Class Senior Year March 2012

A mad scientist named Jim Jannard began questioning the limits of industry standards. No one believed my ideas, said Jim. No one would listen. In 1975, he went into business for himself. Jim started Oakley with $300 and the simple idea of making products that work better and look better than anything else out there. Oakley Inc. 2012
I have always been a fan on Oakley. I own a few pairs of their sunglasses and recently just bought my boyfriend an Oakley gear bag for his motocross gear and a new pair of Oakley sunglasses. I had never really taken the time to think if this beloved company had any kind of detriment to the environment. I always found ordering from them and buying their products to be a good thing due to fact that the factories that create the products, besides the shoes, where located within the United States. Their main head quarter is located in Foothill Ranch, California. When we were presented with the opportunity to do research on something that we loved to see if it was impacting the environment, Oakley Inc. came right to mind. Majority of my friends and family all own products from the company and they have been widely used for many years. So it leaves me wondering, are my wonderful sunglasses that are protecting me from the suns UV rays actually degrading other parts of the environment?

Oakley Inc. is known for being innovative and almost ahead of the times when it comes to making products that people want to go out and buy. Decades of innovation brought new product technologies, blends of science and art that have been awarded more than 600 patents worldwide. Today, Jannards brand has become the mark of excellence and the solution to challenges facing those who cannot compromise on performance (Oakley Inc. 2012). They have lines for every extreme sport from motocross to rock climbing to surfing. Not to mention that their gear, clothing and sunglasses are also great for everyday wear due to the quality that is put

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into making it. One of the top selling products of the Oakley brand would be their sunglasses. The first Oakley sunglasses created where the Factory Pilot Eyeshades. They were sport-oriented and strongly resembled the goggles that had already been created. These were followed not long after by the Oakley Frogskin. These sunglasses had a more causal and everyday appeal to them. They were very popular and versions similar to them are still in production today. The company went public in 1995. 12 years late they signed with an Italian group named Luxottica (Appendix 1). This company would manufacture and make the glasses for the company. Other brands that are made from the Luxottica Group include Ray-Ban, Person and Vogue (Luxottica 2012).

Oakley is known mostly for their polarized lenses. These are made of Polariod polarized plastic sheeting. This sheeting is used to reduce the glare that is caused by surfaces, such as water, that give off reflected light. They are also very useful in diffusing the skylight that also reflects off of many surfaces (Wikipedia 2012). They also usually always involve a mirrored coating over ton of the lenses. This keeps the rays entering the lenses from scattering. These two features are simple additions to the lenses themselves. The lenses are made from either plastic or something known as SR-91. SR-91 is a proprietary lens technology that features the optical acuity of glass lenses along with the lightweight and impact-resistance of polycarbonate lenses. Plus the polarized SR-91 lenses available in 4 different tints and a variety of Light Transmission Levels - are guaranteed not to delaminate, crack or split (ideal for drill-mounting applications) (Stotz, 2009). These lenses are basically the same as the plastic lenses except for the fact they are much more durable due to the processes used to heat and cool them. Plastic lenses are typically made from acrylic, polycarbonate, or CR-39 (Stotz, 2009).

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The production of acrylic plastics involves toxic substances. These substances need to be handled and disposed of properly or they can have costly effects. They can result in explosions if for monitored properly and also produce toxic fumes. Acrylic plastic polymers are formed by reacting a monomer, such as methyl methacrylate, with a catalyst. A typical catalyst would be organic peroxide. The catalyst starts the reaction and enters into it to keep it going, but does not become part of the resulting polymer (Marchel, 2010). Legislation requires that this process must be carried out within a closed environment and the fumes must be taken care of before they enter into the environment. Polycarbonate is the lightest of the lenses that are made. The process to make this compound is rather complex (Appendix 2). The lenses themselves made from this material are molded much like any other plastic lenses would be. CR-39, or allyl diglycol carbonate (ADC), is a plastic polymer commonly used in the manufacture of eyeglass lenses. The abbreviation stands for Columbia Resin #39, because it was the 39th formula of a thermosetting plastic developed by the Columbia Resins project in 1940 (Wikipedia, 2012).Again this is just another form of a different plastic used within the glasses.

The frames of the glasses are also generally made from plastic, nylon, or a metal alloy. The nylon is used mostly in sports frames due to their light weight. It is basically just a simple polymer that is then casted and molded (Appendix 3) to give it a more ridged and hard feeling rather than the soft nylon used for womens stockings. The plastic frames are made very similar to how the lenses are made with the exception that the combination of chemicals is slightly altered to keep from the translucent appearance and to also give a much stronger final product. The final option for frames would be the metal alloy. An alloy is a mixture of elements into a solid, metallic matrix. This allows alloys to have properties that are different from those of its constituent elements. This bonding can take place either in liquid or solid forms--while forging,
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for example (Edwin, 2012). Since metal frames are harder and more ridged on the wearer, most have plastic wraps on the end to keep from rubbing the ear. There are usually bent in most sunglasses so that the stems hook behind the wearers ears. Oakley though has straight resting hooks and calls them ear stems. This makes sure that all of their eyewear will properly fit on someones face without needing to be re-bent or remodeled.

These lenses are frames are all created within one of two locations: Foothill Ranch, California or Dayton, Nevada. These are the two facilities run by Luxottica that are located within the United States. All Oakley sunglass products are produced within the US. The Foothill Ranch facility primarily makes the lenses and frames of most products, which the Dayton facility produces the frames used in the X Metal eyewear (Luxottica, 2011). The materials described within the above paragraphs are then processed and made in two different ways. There is a process for metal frames and also a process for the plastic frames. Luxottica publish how they are created. This is what they state:

The manufacturing process for metal frames has approximately 70 phases, beginning with the production of basic components such as rims, temples and bridges, which are produced through a molding process. These components are then welded together to form frames over numerous stages of detailed assembly work. Once assembled, the metal frames are treated with various coatings to improve their resistance and finish, and then prepared for lens fitting and packaging.

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Plastic frames are manufactured using either a milling process or injection molding. In the milling process, a computer-controlled machine carves frames from colored plastic sheets. This process produces rims, temples and bridges that are then assembled, finished and packaged. In the injection molding process, plastic resins are liquefied and injected into moulds. The plastic parts are then assembled, coated, finished and packaged.

Luxottica engages in research and development activities relating to its manufacturing processes on an ongoing basis. As a result of such activities, Luxottica has invested and will continue to invest in automation and in innovative technologies, thus increasing efficiency while improving quality. With the vertical integration of the production system, a virtuous circle is created: the complete control of production allows for research into new technologies, which in turn results in improved efficiency and an increase in revenues; the company grows and this stimulates investment and research. Luxottica 2011.

Its a pretty simple operation, mostly done by machine and within a factory. Well this is where the environmental impacts start to add up. I began by thinking about the facilities themselves. Two large facilities mostly run by machines with a few people there to monitor it. It seemed fine to me, use machines so that you dont need the man power, this then cuts down on the cars that are driving to the area and then cuts down on the gas emissions from the cars. Genus! Of course, its not that simple. I started to think about the facility itself. How was it powered? Electricity is what keeps this production method alive. Without it you wouldnt be able
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to operate the machines that are creating the sunglasses. The following table shows the carbon dioxide emissions from energy and industry from 1990-2008.

We can obviously see from the table that most of the carbon dioxide is coming from petroleum and coal using facilities. Luxottica does not say how they are powering their facilities, but I can assume it is probably one of those two ways. This means they are adding to the millions of metric tons of carbon dioxide that is produced each year by big businesses. That doesnt surprise me. Fossil fuel-fired power plants are responsible for 67 percent of the nation's sulfur dioxide emissions, 23 percent of nitrogen oxide emissions, and 40 percent of man-made carbon dioxide emissions. These emissions can lead to smog, acid rain, and haze. In addition, these power plant emissions increase the risk of climate change (EPA, 2012). Coal and oil are the two largest forms of energy used today for the production of power and electricity. This isnt the only place that the mining of these resources comes into play when it comes to the process of getting a nice new pair of Oakley sunglasses. Coal and gas are also used in the delivery trucks that transport the goods from one location to another.

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Oakley predominantly uses FedEx to transport goods. They use these to them to send products to any of their main stores or to deliver to residences. In the past, FedEx and USP were always high when it came to carbon emissions due to the systems that were in the trucks. As times have progresses and technology allows for there to be new innovations in the way that engines and trucks run, they have been able to cut down on emissions significantly and will continue to do so. This of course, does not mean they are completely clean and now still giving off thousands of tons of carbon dioxide each year. FedEx stated in 2011, By rebalancing our fleet and optimizing our routes, FedEx Express has improved total fleet miles per gallon within the U.S. by 14.1 percent since 2005, saving over 53 million gallons of fuel or approximately 472,700 metric tons of carbon dioxide emissions, with a goal of improving by 20 percent by 2020. FedEx takes responsibility for the environmental effects of our fuel use and continuously implements efforts to conserve resources. Our goal is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from our FedEx Express global air operations by 20 percent per available ton mile by 2020. Since 2005, we have reduced our relative aircraft emissions by 8.3 percent on a pound per available ton mile basis. We also have a goal to get 30 percent of our jet fuel from alternative fuels by the year 2030 (Appendix 4). They are making big steps, but it is still effecting the environment. This again, like the company, is a total for all of FedEx. But it is still just showing the massive amounts of carbon emissions being released from one of the companies that Oakley works closely with. Well, I thought I would be done with the talk about carbon emissions from coal and gas and oil, but Im not. Unless the package is directly shipped to your house, you have to drive to go get it. This requires you to get into your choice of vehicle and drive to get the sunglasses you choose. Say you are the eco-friendly car owner and you are driving a new 2012 plug in Toyota
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Prius (Appendix 5). This car on average, without the carbon emissions from the charging, gives off 1.18 tons of carbon dioxide per 10,000 miles (Halvorson, 2011). We arent travelling 10,000 miles to get the sunglasses. Lets use my house in Southern New Jersey and travel to the Christiana Mall in Newark, Delaware; this is where I purchased my boyfriends gifts at. Its the closest mall that has an actual Oakley retail store within it. This is approximately 60 minutes away and 42.5 miles. Below is a map showing the distance and time that it would take according to google maps. From here, you can figure out the actually tons of CO2 given off.

If you take the amount given for the Prius at 10,000 miles and convert it to the following formula you can break down the emissions to a per mile basis. (1.18 short tons) divided by 10,000 = 107.05 grams per mile. Now take the 107.05 and multiple it by the 42.5 miles that we will be traveling to the Christiana Mall. That would be 4,549.63 grams of carbon dioxide given off from the Plug-in Pruis to drive to the mall to pick up the sunglasses. Now, lets assume you arent the eco-friendly Pruis driver and you prefer something with a little bit more size, the Hummer. The H2 is classified as a light truck SUV. Such a classification excludes it from EPA testing. However, independent emissions testing reported by Treehugger.com has estimated that the HUMMER H2 expels 1.46 lbs of emissions each mile. Multiplying this by the number of
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estimated miles used by the EPA to calculate estimated annual emissions (15,000), and the H2 delivers 10.95 tons of annual emissions (Wysaki, 2009) (Appendix 6). Taking into consideration the estimated 1.46 lbs or 662.24 grams per mile that the Hummer gives off while driving, we can conclude that in a 42.5 mile trip would be 28,145.2 grams of carbon dioxide. Not everyone drives an energy saving Prius or a gas guzzling Hummer, but we all fall somewhere between the 4,549.63 grams and the 28,145.2 grams of carbon dioxide expelled during this trip. So from this point, we can see the carbon emissions that are generated just from the production of the factory and the energy required to run it, the FedEx trucks that are transporting the Oakley sunglasses from point A to point B and then the emissions given off from someone like myself driving from my home to the nearest mall that has an Oakley store. But there is a biggest picture behind all of this. None of these things would be possible without the production or steel or the mining or coal and oil. The steel is used to make the facilities that produce Oakleys, create the FedEx trucks, the mall, your car, all of it wouldnt be possible without steel as almost the back bone of the operation. And from the examples provided in the paragraphs before this one, you wouldnt be getting anywhere without coal and oil. Steel is an alloy of iron usually containing less than 1% carbon. It is used most frequently in the automotive and construction industries. Steel can be cast into bars, strips, sheets, nails, spikes, wire, rods or pipes as needed by the intended user. Based on statistics from The 1992 Census of Manufacturing, 1,118 steel manufacturing facilities currently exist in the United States. Steel production is a $9.3 billion dollar industry and employs 241,000 people (Illinois) Steel is the founding element to almost all large commercial projects since it is used for the framework of the buildings and also the frames of the vehicles used. Pollution of the environment can come from almost every step of this process (Appendix 7). It can range from air

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pollution, to water pollution, to in some cases noise pollution. The amount of energy and cardon emissions is also extremely high within this industry. The following table depicts the carbon emissions and the energy used on average with the production of steel.

Hot Dip Purlins and Plate Sections Tubes Galvanised Side Rails (generally) C02 0.919 (t/t) Energy 17.37 (GJ /t) 13.12 15.42 21.63 19.38 0.76 0.857 1.35 1.10

They arent small numbers and this is just one example. There are hundreds of places where steel is being produced and one of the main things running these facilities is coal. Coal mining has an enormous effect on the environment. Its effects are land disruption, mine subsidence, water pollution, dust and noise pollution and also just the emissions given off from the machinery used to extract the coal is exponentially high. These are just a few of the costly side effects to the substance that seems to run the world. And its not just in the production of the coal where we find carbon being released into our atmosphere, but we also need it to run the machinery at is mining for more coal. Its a positive feedback loop with no real solution other than trying to find alternative fuels to help power our lives. Its unbelievable how a simple pair of sunglasses can be traced all of the way back to a huge production of coal mining and an industry that isnt fading out anytime soon. We never take the time to look at the big picture and to realize how damaging something we do today can be for someone tomorrow. Going to buy my
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boyfriend a $150.00 birthday present has just circled me back to aiding in the mountain top removal somewhere so that coal can be mined and used to fuel the vehicles that are transporting my product from one place to another. If we dont stop and look at the big picture together, there wont be much of a picture left to look at in the end.

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Reference Websites:
World Coal Association (2011, 11 12). http://www.thejakartapost.com. Retrieved from http://www.worldcoal.org/coal-theenvironment/coal-mining-the-environment/ EarthJustice. (2011, November 08). Earthjustice. Retrieved from worst-greenhouse-gas http://earthjustice.org/features/ourwork/coal-mine-to-emit-

Wysaki, J. (2009, May 16). Autobytel. Retrieved from http://www.autobytel.com/toyota/prius/2009/reviews/emissionsshowdown-toyota-prius-vs-hummer-h2-105357/ Luxottica. (2011). Retrieved from http://www.luxottica.com/en/activities/production

Oakley innovation. (2012, January 01). Retrieved from http://www.oakley.com/innovation/history Cavette, C. (2002). Acrylic Plastic. eNotes.com. Retrieved March 2, 2012, from http://www.enotes.com/acrylic-plastic-reference/acrylic-plastic

EIA (2008, December 8). Emissions of Greenhouse Gases Report. EIA. Retrieved March 2, 2012, from http://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/ggrpt/carbon.html EPA (2012). Air Emissions. EPA. Retrieved March 2, 2012, from http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-and-you/affect/airemissions.html FedEx (2011, January 3). Fuel. FedEx. Retrieved March 2, 2012, from http://about.van.fedex.com/fuel Oakley Inc. (2012). Frame Construction. Oakley. Retrieved February 28, 2012, from http://in.oakley.com/innovation/opticalsuperiority/frame-construction Stotz, K. (2009, March). Processing Kaenon's SR-91 Polarized Lenses - A Lab's Perspective. Lab Talk Online. Retrieved March 2, 2012, from http://www.labtalkonline.com/index_article_view.asp?ArticleID=%7BC0A18C3D-C039-4E93-807C44F5BD2C1969%7D Vision 3k (2012). Oakley Sunglasses. V3K. Retrieved March 2, 2012, from http://www.vision3k.com/oakley-sunglasses.asp Weingart, A. (2010, January 25). Where Glasses Are Made - Oakley Factory Tour. Pinkbike. Retrieved March 5, 2012, from http://www.pinkbike.com/news/oakley-factory-2010.html

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Appendix 1
http://enterprise.vodafone.com/insight_news/2011-21-02-luxottica-choose-vodafone-manage-mobiletelecom.jsp

About Luxottica Group S.p.A. Luxottica Group is a leader in premium fashion, luxury and sports eyewear, with over 6,300 optical and sun retail stores in North America, Asia-Pacific, China, South Africa and Europe and a strong and well-balanced brand portfolio. Luxotticas key house brands include Ray-Ban, the best known sun eyewear brand in the world, Oakley, Vogue, Persol, Oliver Peoples, Arnette and REVO, while license brands include Bvlgari, Burberry, Chanel, Dolce & Gabbana, Donna Karan, Polo Ralph Lauren, Prada, Salvatore Ferragamo, Tiffany and Versace. In addition to a global wholesale network covering 130 countries, the Group manages leading retail brands such as LensCrafters and Pearle Vision in North America, OPSM and Laubman & Pank in Australasia, LensCrafters in Greater China and Sunglass Hut globally. The Groups products are designed and manufactured in six Italy-based manufacturing plants, two whollyowned plants in China and a sports sunglass production facility in the U.S. In 2009, Luxottica Group posted consolidated net sales of Euro 5.1 billion. Additional information about the Group is available at www.luxottica.com.

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Appendix 2
Creating the compound:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycarbonate The first step of the synthesis involves treatment of bisphenol A with sodium hydroxide, which deprotonates the hydroxyl groups of the bisphenol A. (HOC6H4)2CMe2 + 2 NaOH (NaOC6H4)2CMe2 + 2 H2O The diphenoxide ((NaOC6H4)2CMe2) reacts with phosgene to give a chloroformate, which subsequently is attacked by another phenoxide. The net reaction from the diphenoxide is: (NaOC6H4)2CMe2 + COCl2 1/n [OC(OC6H4)2CMe2]n + 2 NaCl In this way, approximately one billion kilograms of polycarbonate is produced annually. Many other diols have been tested in place of bisphenol A, e.g. 1,1-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)cyclohexane and dihydroxybenzophenone including some, e.g. tetramethylcyclobutanediol, that are unlikely endocrine disruptors.

Creating the Lenses:

http://www.spekkies.net/polycarbonate-lenses How Polycarbonate Lenses Are Made Most other plastic lenses are made from a cast molding process, where a liquid plastic material is baked for long periods in lens forms, solidifying the liquid plastic to create a lens. But polycarbonate is a thermoplastic that starts as a solid material in the form of small pellets. In a lens manufacturing process called injection molding, the pellets are heated until they melt. The liquid polycarbonate is then rapidly injected into lens molds, compressed under high pressure and cooled to form a finished lens product in a matter of minutes. While polycarbonate is widely used in eyeglass lenses, another lightweight material known as Trivex now represents a significant rival. In 2001, PPG Industries introduced Trivex as a new, impact-resistant material for eyeglass lenses. This urethane-based monomer (component from which plastics are made) is cast-molded in a manner similar to how regular plastic lenses are created. This gives Trivex lenses the advantage of crisper optics than injection-molded polycarbonate lenses, according to PPG. Like polycarbonate lenses, eyeglass lenses made of Trivex are lighter, thinner and much more impact-resistant than regular plastic lenses. Ask your professional optician to show you samples of polycarbonate and Trivex lenses so you can decide which lens material is the best choice for your needs and budget.
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Appendix 3
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nylon
Nylons are condensation copolymers formed by reacting equal parts of a diamine and a dicarboxylic acid, so that amides are formed at both ends of each monomer in a process analogous to polypeptide biopolymers. Chemical elements included are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. The numerical suffix specifies the numbers of carbons donated by the monomers; the diamine first and the diacid second. The most common variant is nylon 6-6 which refers to the fact that the diamine (hexamethylene diamine, IUPAC name: hexane-1,6-diamine) and the diacid (adipic acid, IUPAC name: hexanedioic acid) each donate 6 carbons to the polymer chain. As with other regular copolymers like polyesters and polyurethanes, the "repeating unit" consists of one of each monomer, so that they alternate in the chain. Since each monomer in this copolymer has the same reactive group on both ends, the direction of the amide bond reverses between each monomer, unlike natural polyamide proteins which have overall directionality: C terminal N terminal. In the laboratory, nylon 6-6 can also be made using adipoyl chloride instead of adipic. It is difficult to get the proportions exactly correct, and deviations can lead to chain termination at molecular weights less than a desirable 10,000 daltons (u). To overcome this problem, a crystalline, solid "nylon salt" can be formed at room temperature, using an exact 1:1 ratio of the acid and the base to neutralize each other. Heated to 285 C (545 F), the salt reacts to form nylon polymer. Above 20,000 daltons, it is impossible to spin the chains into yarn, so to combat this, some acetic acid is added to react with a free amine end group during polymer elongation to limit the molecular weight. In practice, and especially for 6,6, the monomers are often combined in a water solution. The water used to make the solution is evaporated under controlled conditions, and the increasing concentration of "salt" is polymerized to the final molecular weight. DuPont patented nylon 6,6, so in order to compete, other companies (particularly the German BASF) developed the homopolymer nylon 6, or polycaprolactam not a condensation polymer, but formed by a ringopening polymerization (alternatively made by polymerizing aminocaproic acid). The peptide bond within the caprolactam is broken with the exposed active groups on each side being incorporated into two new bonds as the monomer becomes part of the polymer backbone. In this case, all amide bonds lie in the same direction, but the properties of nylon 6 are sometimes indistinguishable from those of nylon 6,6 except for melt temperature and some fiber properties in products like carpets and textiles. There is also nylon 9. The 428 F (220 C) melting point of nylon 6 is lower than the 509 F (265 C) melting point of nylon 6,6. [2] Nylon 5,10, made from pentamethylene diamine and sebacic acid, was studied by Carothers even before nylon 6,6 and has superior properties, but is more expensive to make. In keeping with this naming convention, "nylon 6,12" (N-6,12) or "PA-6,12" is a copolymer of a 6C diamine and a 12C diacid. Similarly for N-5,10 N-6,11; N-10,12, etc. Other nylons include copolymerized dicarboxylic acid/diamine products that are not based upon the monomers listed above. For example, some aromatic nylons are polymerized with the addition of diacids like terephthalic acid ( Kevlar, Twaron) or isophthalic acid ( Nomex), more commonly associated with polyesters. There are copolymers of N-6,6/N6; copolymers of N-6,6/N-6/N-12; and others. Because of the way polyamides are formed, nylon would seem to be limited to unbranched, straight chains. But "star" branched nylon can be produced by the condensation of dicarboxylic acids with polyamines having three or more amino groups. The general reaction is:

A molecule of water is given off and the nylon is formed. Its properties are determined by the R and R' groups in the monomers. In nylon 6,6, R = 4C and R' = 6C alkanes, but one also has to include the two carboxyl carbons in the diacid to get the number it donates to the chain. In Kevlar, both R and R' are benzene rings.

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Appendix 4
http://about.van.fedex.com/fuel Fuel savings at FedEx starts with a holistic examination of a customers supply chain. FedEx frequently works with customers to analyze and reconfigure their supply chains to enhance efficiencies and reduce customers overall environmental footprint. By rebalancing our fleet and optimizing our routes, FedEx Express has improved total fleet miles per gallon within the U.S. by 14.1 percent since 2005, saving over 53 million gallons of fuel or approximately 472,700 metric tons of carbon dioxide emissions, with a goal of improving by 20 percent by 2020. Once packages are in motion, FedEx ensures efficient transportation of goods through the FedEx Global Operations Control (GOC) -- a sophisticated operations hub that uses the most up-to-date communications technologies to track and direct the FedEx air and truck fleets. FedEx also implements an extensive effort to educate our operations teams on how to reduce fuel consumption. For example, we work with the International Air Transport Association (IATA) to assess our fuel use and identify potential savings. Fuel conservation steps from this and other reviews are then circulated among 30 program teams across the FedEx networks, comprising our Fuel Sense program, that have a shared responsibility to execute the changes. We couple our disciplined approach to operations with the latest innovations to further boost fuel savings. For example, FedEx was the first in our industry to operate a modern-day all-electric delivery vehicle and operates the largest fleet of commercial hybrid trucks in North America. We are also a founding member of Carex (Cargo Rail Express), a group developing an express-rail network in Europe, offering an alternative to aircraft routes, improving fuel efficiency and reducing noise impact. FedEx takes responsibility for the environmental effects of our fuel use and continuously implements efforts to conserve resources. Our goal is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from our FedEx Express global air operations by 20 percent per available ton mile by 2020. Since 2005, we have reduced our relative aircraft emissions by 8.3 percent on a pound per available ton mile basis. We also have a goal to get 30 percent of our jet fuel from alternative fuels by the year 2030. Additionally, we are redesigning physical distribution models to maximize the density of our ground and air shipments. This reduces the amount of fuel it takes to ship each package, operating in much the same way as carpooling, with one loaded truck making stops versus scores of people driving individually to obtain the same items. Each FedEx Express flight now represents 9,000 customers on average. By shipping directly to customers or retail stores, FedEx Express is reducing the environmental impact of the transportation chain. Saving fuel not only benefits the environment but also the bottom line.

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Here are some additional examples of how FedEx reduces fuel use: As part of its Fuel Sense program, FedEx uses rigorous operations and recent advancements in aircraft technology to significantly reduce emissions and fuel use from our aircraft fleet:

We are replacing our 727s with 757s, which will cut greenhouse gas emissions and reduce fuel consumption by 47 percent. We are replacing much of our MD-11F fleet with wide-body 777F planes, which not only carry more cargo but also move cargo farther before refueling, reducing fuel consumption by 18 percent and improving our overall fuel efficiency and significantly eliminating carbon emissions that would have otherwise occurred. FedEx wide-body planes with flight management system (FMS) use continuous approach descent, which keeps the plane in idle during the descent, reducing engine thrust and fuel. The reduction of in-gate aircraft auxiliary power unit usage has eliminated over 1.5 hours of engine use per flight throughout the fleet, saving one million gallons of jet fuel per month. Ground support equipment at FedEx operations at select airports has been converted from internal combustion engine models to electric units, which saves almost 1 million gallons of jet fuel per month.

Once packages are on the ground, a network of coordinated, local FedEx teams use route optimization and cleaner vehicle technology to deliver goods to our customers. FedEx has worked to optimize our delivery routes to ensure that the most efficient sized vehicle is in use on each route. As a result of these efforts, more than one-fourth of the FedEx fleet has been converted to smaller more fuel efficient vehicles, saving more than 58 million gallons of fuel:

FedEx currently operates the largest fleet of commercial hybrid trucks in North America, consisting of more than 329 hybrid-electric trucks, and operates 19 all-electric trucks in Los Angeles, London and Paris. FedEx Express, FedEx Ground and FedEx Freight are members of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) SmartWay Transport Initiative a voluntary alliance between various freight industry sectors and EPA that seeks fuel-efficiency improvements and greenhouse gas reductions through operational changes.

Revised Jan 3, 2011

Appendix 5
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http://venturebeat.com/2011/03/24/toyota-prius-2012-plug-in/
March 24, 2011 3:16 PM Bengt Halvorson 4 Comments Over six days of drivinglimited to around-town tripswe put about 103 miles on a fleet-test Toyota Prius Plug-In, averaging 90.8 miles per gallon. In that time, we gave the Prius Plug-In five full charges and two partial ones, and according to the trip computer, we covered 77.7 miles in EV mode. As weve reported in prior driving impressions, the Plug-In, which wont go on sale until spring of 2012, will move onor primarily onelectric power for up to 14 or so miles per charge, and a full charge only takes about three hours with a standard 110V household power outlet. There are several conversation points here, and it takes some juggling of figures to get a grasp of whether the plug-in might be right for you. That starts with two big questions: Firstly, how much does the Prius cost to run on electric power versus normal hybrid operation; and secondly, whats the net difference in carbon footprint and emissions? Both of those answers are going to be dramatically different from family to family, depending on how often you remember to plug in, how far you travel per trip and each day, and whether its possible or convenient at waypoints. Charges cost less than 50 cents a pop First, the cost-of-ownership question. According to Toyota spokesman John Hanson, the Prius PHEV only uses about 3.8 kWh of the batterys 5.2-kWh capacity (for battery longevity). Starting with what electricity costs me here in Portland, Oregon11.7 cents per kWh, slightly higher than the 11.04-cent national average at the end of last year that pegs each full charge at about 44 cents. With a total of about six charges, given the five full charges and two partial ones, that puts our total cost of electricity at about $2.67. In a driving style thats comparable to what we followed with the Plug-Inwhich is to say gentle and careful, with only a couple of exceptions to test the power on tapweve seen in the range of 48 mpg in the standard Toyota Prius. So we would have used about 2.15 gallons of gasoline in a non-Plug-In model. At the current national average of about $3.54 a gallon, thats $7.61 in a standard Prius to cover those 103 miles. In our PHEV test car, we used 1.13 gallons ($4.01), plus that $2.67 in electricitybringing our total for the PHEV of $6.68. Just to index this in some way, here it is adjusted for 100 miles, at the average cost of residential electricity: Prius Plug-In (100 miles): $6.12 Standard Prius (estimate, 100 mi): $6.98 Difference per 100 miles: $0.86 Difference per 10,000 miles: $86 Difference per 100,000 miles: $860 Payback? Probably not. With the 2012 Toyota Prius Plug-In expected to sell at $3,500 to $5,000 more than a comparable Prius, payback in this traditional sense probably isnt going to happeneven if gas prices double. Now lets look at the second issueemissions. If we used six full charges, and capacity is roughly 3.8 kWh, we used a total of about 22.8 kWh for 103 miles, or about 22.16 kWh for 100 miles. Thats about 222 kW over 10,000 miles, charging with the sort of frequency we did (which would mean an average twice a day for a 10,000-mile annual commuter). Using the national average of 1.297 pounds of CO2 per kWh, thats only about 288 pounds of CO2 from our charges. Again using the assumption of about 91 mpg in the Plug-In versus 48 in the standard Prius (from 55-percent EV Mode use), thats 2.08 gallons per 100 miles in the Prius, 1.10 in the Plug-In. Adapting 2.97 tons per 15,000 miles to

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10,000 miles results in 1.98 tons. We then take the ratio of fuel used for the plug-in (1.10/2.08) and multiply it by that, then add in the carbon from plugging in. Shrink your carbon footprintsignificantly Altogether the difference is very significant, with the standard Prius emitting nearly 70 percent more CO2: Greenhouse gases (CO2) per 10,000 miles: Standard Prius: 1.98 tons Prius Plug-In: 1.18 tons For other emissions, the grid has some cleaning-up to do As for smog-forming emissions, its another matter entirely. While going electric greatly reduces our carbon footprint for vehicles, our power plants, on average, are much dirtier than the tailpipes of our newest, cleanest vehicles; coal plants in particular emit significant amounts of sulfur dioxide as well as NOx. Some argue that increasing the number of electric vehicles will speed the replacement of our oldest dirtiest power stations, and in some situations major power plants are hundreds of miles from urban centers, keeping them from contributing to local smog issues. While this was harder to calculate, we estimated overall smog-forming emissions based on the same proportion of plugging in, over 10,000 miles annually. The Plug-In would use about 2.2 Mwh per year, and based on estimations in several papers, 2.5 pounds of NOx per MWh is a rough equivalent average emissions level in the U.S. Of course, it varies drastically by region within the U.S.; check with your local power provider for more information. Smog-forming pollution per 10,000 miles: Standard Prius (NOx + NMOG): 0.66 pounds (std Prius) Prius Plug-In (NOx): 5.85 pounds Final thoughts: Ask these questions for yourself While the Prius Plug-In probably wont pay off economically, it makes sense under some situations if you want to make even more of a difference in cutting carbon emissions. If you plan to charge it only occasionally, or drive longer distances, carrying the extra 300 pounds of the larger battery pack all the time might offset the gains from charging; consider a longer-range EV like the NissanLeaf, a plug-in with a longer electric range like the Chevrolet Volt, or a hybrid like the Prius or the Ford Fusion Hybrid. On the other hand, if you mainly take short trips, faithfully charge up in between errands, and can cover most of your driving in EV Mode, you could very significantly cut carbon emissions with a Prius Plug-Inand still have a vehicle thats good for longer trips.

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Appendix 7
http://www.istc.illinois.edu/info/library_docs/manuals/primmetals/chapter2.htm Cokeless Ironmaking Cokeless ironmaking procedures are currently being studied and, in some places, implemented. One such procedure is the Japanese Direct Iron Ore Smelting (DIOS) process (Figure 2). The DIOS process produces molten iron from coal and previously melted ores. In this process, coal and other ores can produce enough heat to melt ore, replacing coke completely (USEPA, 1995). In addition to reducing coke use, the DIOS process could cut the costs of molten iron production by about 10%, reduce emissions of carbon dioxide by 5 - 10% and increase flexibility by improving the starting and stopping capabilities of the steel mill (Furukawa, 1994). However, the DIOS process remain very expensive and requires extensive process modification. In 1995, this method was still being tested and economic feasibility will be determined from those tests. The HISmelt process, named after the HISmelt Corporation of Australia, is another cokeless iron melting process being tested. In this process, ore fines and coal are manipulated to melt iron ore. In 1993, the process could produce eight tons of iron ore per hour using ore directly in the smelter. Process modifications are expected to increase the efficiency to 14 tons per hour. Commercial feasibility studies were performed in 1995. Midrex is expected to be the U.S. distributor of the process. A final cokeless iron melting process is the Corex or Cipcor Process. This process also manipulates coke to produce the heat required to melt iron. A Corex plant is operational in South Africa. Posco of Korea has a Corex plant operating at 70% capacity in 1996 and is expected to continue progress (Ritt, 1996). India is also expected to build a plant in 1997. The process integrates coal desulfurization, has flexible coal-type requirements, and generates excess electricity that can be sold to power grids (USEPA, 1995). Further testing is being conducted to determine actual commercial feasibility in the U.S. Figure 2. The DIOS Process (Furukawa, 1994) Iron Carbide Steel Production Plants Iron carbide production plants can be an alternative to the Basic Oxide Furnace. These plants use iron carbide, an iron ore that contains 6% carbon rather than 1.5-1.8% of regular iron ore . The additional carbon ignites in the presence of oxygen and contributes heat to the iron melting process, reducing energy requirements (Ritt, 1996). While these types of plants do not reduce pollution on site, they do reduce the electricity requirement for steel production, reducing polution from the power plant. Pollution Sources and Prevention in Ironmaking Slag, the limestone and iron ore impurities collected at the top of the molten iron, make up the largest portion of ironmaking by-products. Sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide are volatized and captured in air emissions control equipment and the residual slag is sold to the construction industry. While this is not a pollution prevention technique, the solid waste does not reach landfills. Blast furnace flue gas is also generated during ironmaking. This gas is cleaned to remove particulates and other compounds, allowing it to be reused as heat for coke furnaces or other processes. Cleaning gas for reuse can produce some air pollution control dust and water treatment plant sludge, depending on the method used. The dust can be reused in sintering processes or landfilled.

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Pollution Sources and Prevention in the BOF Slag is a major component of the waste produced in BOFs. Because of its composition, this slag, unlike that from the blast furnace, is best used as an additive in the sintering process. As its metallic content is lower, it does not make a good raw material for the construction industry. Hot gases are also produced by the BOF. Furnaces are equipped with air pollution control equipment that contains and cools the gas. The gas is quenched and cooled using water and cleaned of suspended solids and metals. This process produces air pollution control dust and water treatment plant sludge. Steel Production from Scrap Metals Steelmaking from scrap metals involves melting scrap metal, removing impurities and casting it into the desired shapes. Electric arc furnaces (EAF) are often used (Figure 1). The EAFs melt scrap metal in the presence of electric energy and oxygen. The process does not require the three step refinement as needed to produce steel from ore. Production of steel from scrap can also be economical on a much smaller scale. Frequently mills producing steel with EAF technology are called mini-mills. Pollution Sources and Material Recovery Gaseous emissions and metal dust are the most prominent sources of waste from electric arc furnaces. Gaseous emissions are collected and cleaned, producing EAF dust or sludge. The remaining gas contains small quantities of nitrogen oxide and ozone and is usually released. The EAF dust or sludge composition varies depending on the type of steel being manufactured. Common components include iron and iron oxides, flux, zinc, chromium, nickel oxide and other metals used for alloys. If the dust or sludge contains lead or cadmium, it is listed as a hazardous waste (RCRA K061) (USEPA, 1995). In 1996, 500kg of EAF dust were produced for each tonn (UK weight measurements) of crude steel production. In the United Kingdom, 70% of that dust is sold to other companies, 20% is recycled in-plant and 10% is landfilled. Although it is a relatively small proportion of the total volume of waste, the landfilled EAF dust amounts to 50 kg per tonne of crude steel produced (Strohmeier, 1996). Recycling and recovery of EAF dust can be difficult because of the alkalinity and heavy metal (zinc and lead) content. The dust can be landfilled, but, because of the fine nature, it may leach into ground water. Several processes have been developed to recover the zinc, lead and other heavy metals from EAF dust. Although not pollution prevention, metal recovery is almost always profitable if the zinc content of the dust is 15 - 20% of the total volume. It can be marginally profitable with lower levels of zinc. Other metals such as chromium and nickel can also be reclaimed and sold. After the heavy metals have been removed, the dust is composed primarily of iron and iron oxides and may be remelted. If the metal content is sufficient, the dust can be reused in the blast furnaces. If it is not sufficient, the dust can be sold to other industries for use as raw materials in bricks, cement, sandblasting or fertilizers. Energy Optimizing Furnaces (EOF) EOF was developed to replace the electric arc and other steelmaking furnaces. The EOF is an oxygen steelmaking process. Carbon and oxygen react to preheat scrap metal, hot metal and/or pig iron. These furnaces reduce capital and conversion costs, energy consumption and environmental pollution, while increasing input flexibility (Chattergee, 1995).

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Steel Forming and Finishing After the molten metal is released from either the BOF, EAF or EOV, it must be formed into its final shape and finished to prevent corrosion. Traditionally, steel was poured into convenient shapes called ingots and stored until further shaping was needed. Current practices favor continuous casting methods, where the steel is poured directly into semi-finished shapes. Continuous casting saves time by reducing the steps required to produce the desired shape. After the steel has cooled in its mold, as further detailed in Chapter 3, continued shaping is done with hot or cold forming. Hot forming is used to make slabs, strips, bars or plates from the steel. Heated steel is passed between two rollers until it reaches the desired thickness. Cold forming is used to produce wires, tubes, sheets and strips. In this process the steel is passed between two rollers, without being heated, to reduce the thickness. The steel is then heated in an annealing furnace to improve the ductile properties. Cold rolling is more time consuming, but is used because the products have better mechanical properties, better machinability, and can more easily be manipulated into special sizes and thinner gauges. After rolling is completed, the steel pieces are finished to prevent corrosion and improve properties of the metal. The finishing process is detailed in the Pollution Prevention and the Metal Finishing Industry manual. Pollution Sources and Prevention from Steel Forming The primary wastes produced in the metal forming process include contact water, oil, grease, and mill scale. All are collected in holding tanks. The scale settles out and is removed. It can be reused in sintering plants or, if the metal content is sufficient, may be sold as a raw material elsewhere. The remaining liquid leaves the process as waste treatment plant sludge. As the waste results in a small portion of pollution produced by steelmaking, pollution prevention and process modification opportunities are not a priority.

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Appendix 8
http://www.worldcoal.org/coal-the-environment/coal-mining-the-environment/
Coal Mining & the Environment Coal mining, particularly surface mining, requires large areas of land to be temporarily disturbed. This raises a number of environmental challenges, including soil erosion, dust, noise and water pollution, and impacts on local biodiversity. Steps are taken in modern mining operations to minimise impacts on all aspects of the environment. By carefully pre-planning projects, implementing pollution control measures, monitoring the effects of mining and rehabilitating mined areas, the coal industry minimises the impact of its activities on the neighbouring community, the immediate environment and on long-term land capability. Land Disturbance In best practice, studies of the immediate environment are carried out several years before a coal mine opens in order to define the existing conditions and to identify potential problems. The studies look at the impact of mining on surface and ground water, soils, local land use, native vegetation and wildlife populations. Computer simulations can be undertaken to model impacts on the local environment. The findings are then reviewed as part of the process leading to the award of a mining permit by the relevant government authorities. Mine Subsidence Mine subsidence can be a problem with underground coal mining, whereby the ground level lowers as a result of coal having been mined beneath. A thorough understanding of subsistence patterns in a particular region allows the effects of underground mining on the surface to be quantified. The coal mining industry uses a range of engineering techniques to design the layout and dimensions of its underground mine workings so that surface subsidence can be anticipated and controlled. This ensures the safe, maximum recovery of a coal resource, while providing protection to other land uses. Water Pollution Mine operations work to improve their water management, aiming to reduce demand through efficiency, technology and the use of lower quality and recycled water. Water pollution is controlled by carefully separating the water runoff from undisturbed areas from water which contains sediments or salt from mine workings. Clean runoff can be discharged into surrounding water courses, while other water is treated and can be reused such as for dust suppression and in coal preparation plants. Acid mine drainage Acid mine drainage (AMD) can be a challenge at coal mining operations. AMD is metal-rich water formed from the chemical reaction between water and rocks containing sulphur-bearing minerals. The runoff formed is usually acidic and frequently comes from areas where ore- or coal mining activities have exposed rocks containing pyrite, a sulphur-bearing mineral. However, metal-rich drainage can also occur in mineralised areas that have not been mined. AMD is formed when the pyrite reacts with air and water to form sulphuric acid and dissolved iron. This acid run-off dissolves heavy metals such as copper, lead and mercury into ground and surface water. There are mine management methods that can minimise the problem of AMD, and effective mine design can keep water away from acid generating materials and help prevent AMD occurring. AMD can be treated actively or passively. Active treatment involves installing a water treatment plant, where the AMD is first dosed with lime to neutralise the acid and then passed through settling tanks to remove the sediment and particulate metals.

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Passive treatment aims to develop a self-operating system that can treat the effluent without constant human intervention.

Dust & Noise Pollution Dust at mining operations can be caused by trucks being driven on unsealed roads, coal crushing operations, drilling operations and wind blowing over areas disturbed by mining. Dust levels can be controlled by spraying water on roads, stockpiles and conveyors. Other steps can also be taken, including fitting drills with dust collection systems and purchasing additional land surrounding the mine to act as a buffer zone. Trees planted in these buffer zones can also minimise the visual impact of mining operations on local communities. Noise can be controlled through the careful selection of equipment and insulation and sound enclosures around machinery. Rehabilitation Coal mining is only a temporary use of land, so it is vital that rehabilitation of land takes place once mining operations have stopped. In best practice a detailed rehabilitation or reclamation plan is designed and approved for each coal mine, covering the period from the start of operations until well after mining has finished. Where the mining is underground, the surface area can be simultaneously used for other uses - such as forests, cattle grazing and growing crops - with little of no disruption to the existing land use. Mine reclamation activities are undertaken gradually with the shaping and contouring of spoil piles, replacement of topsoil, seeding with grasses and planting of trees taking place on the mined-out areas. Care is taken to relocate streams, wildlife, and other valuable resources. As mining operations cease in one section of a surface mine, bulldozers and scrapers are used to reshape the disturbed area. Drainage within and off the site is carefully designed to make the new land surface as stable and resistant to soil erosion as the local environment allows. Based on the soil requirements, the land is suitably fertilised and revegetated. Reclaimed land can have many uses, including agriculture, forestry, wildlife habitation and recreation. Companies carefully monitor the progress of rehabilitation and usually prohibit the use of the land until the vegetation is self-supporting. The cost of the rehabilitation of the mined land is factored into the mines operating costs. Using Methane from Coal Mines Methane (CH4) is a gas formed as part of the process of coal formation. It is released from the coal seam and the surrounding disturbed strata during mining operations. Methane is a potent greenhouse gas, with a global warming potential 23 times that of carbon dioxide. While coal is not the only source of methane emissions agricultural activities are major emitters methane from coal seams can be utilised rather than released to the atmosphere with a significant environmental benefit (see methane section of website).

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