15

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1

REQUIREMENTS OF CUTTING TOOLS Modern machining process consists of automated machining at high

speed and machining of work materials in its hardened condition. Consistent tool performance is essential to meet the requirements of modern machining process. Cutting tool materials have to meet several stringent requirements dictated by the cutting process. In order to perform satisfactorily in the machining operation, the cutting tool materials should have the basic properties such as abrasion resistance, hot hardness, chemical stability, fracture toughness and thermal shock resistance as reported by Li and Low (1994a). It is essential for a tool to have a high resistance to abrasion, in order to withstand the change in dimensions due to rubbing. A cutting tool requires hot hardness in order to maintain a sharp and consistent cutting edge at elevated temperatures that occurs while machining. Chemical stability of the tool material is an important property because the affinity between the tool and the work material produces chemically activated wear in the tool material especially at high temperatures. Toughness allows the insert to absorb the forces and shock loads that are produced during machining. It is particularly relevant in intermittent machining operations. Thermal shock resistance is necessary for cutting tools to overcome the effects of the continuous cycle of heating and cooling, in machining.

16

A single cutting tool material cannot obviously meet all the above-mentioned requirements. This is especially so in the present day needs of cutting tools for high speed machining and machining of hard materials. Hence tool material technology is making great strides in producing a wide variety of cutting tool materials to meet the ever-increasing demands of the industries.

2.2

DEVELOPMENT OF TOOL MATERIALS

The earliest cutting tool used since the advent of machine tool was high carbon steel. Taylor and White produced High-speed steel (HSS) at the beginning of twentieth century. Milton Shaw (1984) has reported that the introduction of HSS made possible considerable increase in cutting speed. High-speed steels are succeeded by various cutting tool materials such as cast alloy known as Stellite (cobalt based alloys), cemented carbides, ceramics, cubic boron nitride and poly crystalline diamond. These cutting tool materials have made possible the increase in cutting speeds, higher metal removal rates and higher productivity. Development in tool materials has been taking place for several decades. The development of superior cutting tool materials has reduced metal cutting time. Sadasivan and Sarathy (1999) have stated that the cemented carbide cutting tools have good hot hardness and strength upto certain temperature beyond which they are not able to maintain their hot hardness. The quest for cutting tool materials with improved properties such as hot hardness, abrasion resistance and chemical stability has led to the introduction of ceramic cutting tool materials.

17

2.2.1

Ceramic cutting tools a brief history Sintered aluminium oxide cutting tools were first developed in

Germany as early as 1905. Patents on ceramic cutting tools were issued in England in 1912 and Germany in 1913. Dow Whitney (1983) reported that the research conducted during World War II at Degussa, Germany, by Ryshevitch led to the production of first commercially available ceramic tool named Dedussit. Ryshevitch (1942) recorded that the first patent on ceramic cutting tools was issued in 1942 in the United States of America (USA). King and Wheidon (1966) reported that in the Soviet Union the first ceramic tool called Microlite was produced at the Institute of Chemical Technology, Moscow in 1945. Ceramic cutting tools became commercially available in the USA in 1954. Ford Motor Company is one of the first manufacturing industries in the USA to establish a high volume production application for ceramic cutting tools. Unfortunately the early ceramic cutting tools tended to be weak and met with several failures as a result of either improper application, unsuitable equipment or both. In the early 1970s, it was discovered that aluminium oxide mixed with refractory metal particulate like titanium carbide could produce a cutting tool with superior hardness and fracture resistance. Improvements were made in ceramic cutting tool processing in 1970s and 1980s by sintering aids, by the addition of zirconium oxide and other toughening agents, which improved the overall strength and fracture toughness. Wei and Bacher (1985) reported that hot pressed aluminium oxide with 20 to 30% volume percentage of silicon carbide whiskers was developed in the mid 1980s. The improvements in sintering processes like hot pressing and hot isostatic processing are able to maximize the density of ceramic cutting tool materials.

18

In the early 1980s, ceramic tool producers turned to a new base material, silicon nitride, for the development of advanced ceramic cutting tool products. Silicon nitride cutting tools exhibited a greater strength, fracture toughness and better wear resistance than aluminium oxide cutting tools while machining cast iron. However, silicon nitride is generally not recommended for the machining of steel. In a search for improved silicon nitride tool, it was found in the early 1970s that aluminium and oxygen would enter the silicon nitride lattice without affecting its structure as quoted by Bhattacharya and Jawaid (1981). Hot pressed mixtures of aluminium nitride and alumina with silicon nitride at around 2073 K resulted in a single-phase material called Sialon. Sialons are generally cold pressed and sintered, while other silicon nitrides are consolidated by hot pressing or by hot isostatic pressing. The developments in ceramic materials technology have led to the improvements in the ceramic cutting tools and now they are capable to machine a wide variety of work materials with performance reliability. 2.3 PROPERTIES OF CERAMIC CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS During machining process, particularly in the machining of hard materials, the cutting tools are required to withstand high stress, vibration and temperature for which improved physical properties like hardness, fracture toughness, strength, thermal shock resistance and microstructure are considered important determinant factors. For machining operations, many cutting tool materials are developed in quest for better properties and ceramic material is considered a promising cutting tool material. The properties of ceramic materials pertaining to cutting tool applications are discussed.

19

2.3.1

Hardness Ceramic tools are harder than cemented carbides and high-speed steels.

Ceramic tools have high hot hardness i.e. they can retain their hardness at elevated temperature and this enables high-speed machining as well as dry machining, because it is not necessary to reduce the temperature prevailing on the cutting edge as pointed out by Aronson Robert (1999). The hardness of ceramic cutting tool material is retained even upto the melting temperature of steel. Rabinowicz (1964) has reported that abrasive wear resistance of any sliding pair is proportional to the hardness of the material. So hardness is an important property for the ceramic cutting tool material, as it increases the abrasive wear resistance of the cutting tool as the hardness increases. The hardness of the ceramic tool is normally measured by microhardness tests like Vickers hardness test or Knoop hardness test. The hardness of ceramic tools is affected by the microstructures. Sukyoung Kim (1994) has reported that the hardness of the ceramic tools is affected by the grain size, pores, additives, surface treatment etc. The relationship of hardness to porosity in ceramics can be expressed as follows and it is given by Dow Whitney and Palavoor Vaidyanathan (1987). H = H0 e-np where p is the fractional porosity, H0 is the hardness at p=0, n is the material constant in the range 4 to 7 and H is the measured hardness. (2.1)

20

As the porosity increases the density of the ceramic material decreases. Ceramic cutting tool material has to be fabricated to obtain maximum density i.e. near to the theoretical density of the material. The hot hardness combined with the chemical stability of the ceramic cutting tool material gives the advantage over cemented carbide and high-speed steel tool in high-speed machining. Ceramic cutting tool materials are used to machine hard and refractory materials because of its ability to retain hardness at high temperatures. 2.3.2 Fracture toughness Fracture toughness is an important property desired for the machining process especially in the interrupted machining. Ceramic cutting tools have low fracture toughness compared to carbide and high-speed cutting tools. The low fracture toughness leads to brittle fracture of the ceramic tools. Generally the fracture toughness may be defined as the ability to resist permanent deformation and to deform before failure. For cutting tool applications, fracture is a major limiting factor and it is related to fracture stress and flaw size. KIC = f (c) where KIC is the critical stress intensity factor or fracture toughness, f is the fracture stress and c is the flaw size.
1

(2.2)

21

Fracture toughness of the ceramic cutting tool material is found using Vickers indentation method or four-point bending test or Chevron-notch short bar test. Vickers indentation is the recent method for finding fracture toughness KIC and it can be estimated using the equation given by Niihara et al (1982).
2/5

E K IC = 0.0089 H V
where

P a.l 1 / 2

(2.3)

KIC is the fracture toughness, E is the elastic modulus, P is the load during Vickers test, HV is the Vickers hardness, a is the half indentation diagonal length, c is the half crack length and l = (c a). In an effort to improve the fracture toughness of the ceramic materials, various composite ceramic materials are developed. By adding particulates, fibres and whiskers in the ceramic matrix the fracture toughness of the composite ceramics is improved. 2.3.3 Compressive and transverse strength Strength is one of the important properties for any cutting tool since tremendous amount of cutting force is exerted on the tool. King and Wheildon (1966) have stated that ceramic materials have high compressive strength but their transverse strength is considerably lower than that of cemented carbides or

22

high-speed steel. Transverse strength of the ceramic materials is found using three point bending test. On account of this lower transverse strength, ceramic tools with positive rake angle will not be expected to withstand entry shocks. Further they will be vulnerable to failure under vibrating conditions during highspeed machining especially on rough surfaces. This drawback virtually calls for specific geometry for the ceramic tools and vibration free robust machine tools. Due to low transverse strength, chipping of the tool edge can be observed during the machining process. Transverse strength of the ceramic materials is improved considerably with whisker reinforcement in the ceramic matrix. 2.3.4 Microstructure In general, tool materials have shown a trend of greater strength with finer grain size and uniformity of strength can be achieved with fine grain size. Passmore et al (1965) has observed that fracture in coarse grain ceramics is mostly trans-granular in nature. However in a fine grain material inter-granular failure can be observed. Evans and Langdon (1976) have reported that fine intergranular cracks are developed in fine grain ceramic materials. These cracks reduce the fracture strength of the materials, but provide an effective mechanism for absorbing strain energy during mechanical and thermal shocks thereby increasing the fracture toughness, preventing catastrophic crack propagation. The role of grain size and microstructure on the strength of the sintered oxides is already established. Sprigg et al (1964) has computed the transverse strength of alumina with various grain sizes and at different temperatures of hot pressing. The fine grain size with grain diameter less than 3 microns produces the requisite transverse strength of cutting tool. Microstructurally engineered composite tools are developed by adding secondary phase materials in the alumina matrix.

23

Introduction of an adequate amount of zirconia in traditional alumina matrix has led to the development of zirconia toughened alumina (ZTA) with improved toughness. SiC whisker reinforcement in alumina matrix increases the fracture toughness of the composite. Knowledge of microstructure is the key to the control of mechanical properties in ceramic cutting tool materials technology, which enhances their machining performance. The mechanical and thermal properties of ceramics are the key factor, in their successful application as cutting tools. Ceramic cutting tools have better properties like hot hardness and compressive strength than carbide tools but they have other inferior properties like fracture toughness and thermal shock resistance. Recent developments and advances in ceramic technology have improved the fracture toughness and thermal shock resistance of ceramics and opened bright prospects for ceramics in cutting tool applications. 2.4 ALUMINA BASED CERAMIC CUTTING TOOLS King (1964) reported that aluminium oxide was the first oxide material to be used as ceramic cutting tools. It has good hot hardness, wear resistance and low affinity to most metals and alloys. It has been successfully applied for cast iron and high speed finish machining of steel. Alumina as a tool material lacks fracture toughness and has a low thermal conductivity. Improvements have been made in tool properties by introducing alumina based composite ceramic cutting tools instead of monolithic alumina ceramic cutting tool. The developments in alumina based ceramic composite materials have led to their applications in machining of various types of steel, cast iron, non-ferrous metals and refractory nickel based alloys at high speed. Charles Wick (1988) has reported that

24

switching from coated carbide tools to composite alumina ceramic tools has resulted in a 2.5 times improvement in tool life plus faster metal removal rate when machining automobile axle hubs made out of malleable iron. By using ceramic inserts, the cutting speed can be increased from 183 m/min to 381 m/min. The other machining parameters such as feed rate of 0.20 mm/rev and depth of cut of 0.38 mm remain the same. In general the alumina based ceramic cutting tool materials can be classified into the following three broad categories.

Pure oxide based ceramic materials (White Ceramics) Mixed alumina based ceramic materials (Black ceramics) Whisker reinforced alumina ceramic materials

When an oxide ceramic material like zirconium oxide is added to the aluminium oxide matrix, such composite materials may be called Pure oxide based ceramic materials (White ceramics). When non-oxide ceramic materials like titanium carbide or titanium nitride are mixed with aluminium oxide matrix, such composite materials may be called Mixed alumina based ceramic materials (Black ceramics). When whiskers like silicon carbide whiskers are reinforced in aluminium oxide matrix, such composite materials may be called Whisker reinforced alumina ceramic materials.

25

2.4.1

Pure oxide based ceramic cutting tool materials Pure oxide ceramic is white in colour and consists mainly of alumina

with additions of zirconia. The cutting tools manufactured using pure aluminium oxide are wear resistant and chemically stable but they their performance is unreliable due to chipping of nose region and spalling of materials near the cutting nose. This tendency which is due to low fracture toughness of white ceramic, can be controlled by introducing zirconium oxide in the alumina matrix. Such type of composite is called Zirconia Toughened Alumina (ZTA) because the composite is toughened by the addition of zirconia in the alumina matrix. The strengthening or the toughening mechanism of this ceramic composite is phase transformation toughening. Zirconia toughened alumina consists of partially stabilized zirconia particles dispersed in alumina matrix. Zirconia exists in three well-defined polymorphs: cubic (c) (above 2370C), tetragonal (t) (between 2643 K and 1423 K) and monoclinic (m) (below 1423 K). The high temperature phases can be stabilised to room temperature by addition of dopants like yittria, ceria and magnesia as reported by Sornakumar et al (1993). The t-phase, which is metastable phase at low temperature, needs energy to transform to the stable low temperature m-phase. Since this t to m transformation absorbs energy, and since the ability to absorb energy generates toughness, t to m transformation leads to an increase in toughness of the material. This phenomenon is known as transformation toughening. When zirconia is toughened by the dopants like yittria, ceria and magnesia using the above transformation toughening, it is called transformation-toughened zirconia (TTZ). Introduction of an adequate amount of zirconia in traditional alumina matrix has led to the development of zirconia-

26

toughened alumina (ZTA) with improved toughness. In ZTA zirconia experiences a constrained transformation, the constraining matrix is alumina, which has higher elastic modulus and lower thermal expansion than TTZ. The tetragonal-monoclinic transformation is considered to be martensitic in the bulk and it is accompanied by a volume increase. When pure zirconia is dispersed in an alumina matrix, zirconia retains metastable tetragonal phase, as it is constrained by the rigid alumina matrix that oppose to the volume increase related to phase transformation. When the alumina-tetragonal zirconia composites are stressed, the tensile strain field that surrounds a crack tip transforms zirconia particles, which expand and generate compressive strain in the matrix and the tensile stress at the crack tip is decreased. Lo Casto et al (1996) has reported that the phase transformation enhances the fracture toughness of zirconia toughened alumina composites. Pure oxide based alumina ceramic tools are manufactured by different methods. Ezugwu and Wallbank (1987) have dealt with the manufacturing methods of ceramic tools in detail. Cold pressing operation and hot pressing operation are the two important routes of manufacturing pure oxide ceramic tools. In cold pressing method normally the powders are compacted by cold pressing i.e. the powders are pressed at room temperature and then it is sintered at 1773-1973 K. In hot pressing operation the powders are compacted at 20-30 MPa at temperature ranging from 1773 - 1973 K. Hot pressing operation is very effective for sintering alumina to high density. Hot isostatic process is also used for manufacturing pure oxide based alumina tools. In this operation, the compacted powder is presintered, and then it is placed in HIP (Hot Isostatic Press) furnace at high temperature. Hot pressed or hot isostatically pressed oxide ceramic tools have better properties than cold pressed tools. However, pure oxide

27

ceramics have low thermal conductivity and are therefore susceptible to thermal shock during machining. For this reason coolants are not recommended for these ceramic tools during machining process. Zirconia toughened alumina ceramic tools are regarded as tough grade and generally used for cast iron and steel. 2.4.2 Mixed alumina based ceramic cutting tool materials Aluminium oxide is brittle and the main reason for poor fracture toughness is the absence of ductile second phase for arresting cracking and subsequent spalling. In the case of cemented carbide composites such as cobalt bonded tungsten carbide or nickel bonded titanium carbide, a ductile phase in the form of cobalt or nickel is present. A similar approach has resulted in the development of an improved particulate added Al2O3-TiC composite tools with increased transverse rupture strength. The thermal shock resistance of the alumina can be improved by the addition of secondary phase, titanium carbide being the most common addition. The titanium nitride is also used as a secondary ceramic phase because of its superior thermal conductivity. By adding these nonoxide particles like TiC and TiN in the alumina matrix, the thermal conductivity, the thermal shock resistance and the hardness are increased. These composite ceramic cutting tools retain their hardness even at elevated temperature. The addition of particles like TiC and TiN increases the transverse rupture strength of the composite as compared to the white plain alumina ceramic cutting tools. In the Ti[C, N] mixed alumina composite ceramic cutting tool, the TiC, TiN grains pin the crack initiated in the matrix. This is due to the fact that additional expenditure of energy is required, in order to propagate the crack around the particles as pointed out by Sornakumar (1996). The toughening mechanism for this type of mixed ceramic cutting tools is known as precipitate or dispersion

28

strengthening. In precipitate or dispersion strengthened materials, when a dislocation encounters the precipitates, it will not, in general, be able to cut through them, because precipitates are stronger than the matrix. Consequently, the dislocation will have to bow between the precipitates and around them, leaving a dislocation loop around the particle. The dislocation movement is thus hindered by the TiC and TiN particles dispersed in alumina matrix, and additional expenditure of energy is required for the movement of the dislocation as reported by Dow Whitney and Palavoor Vaidyanathan (1987). Mixed alumina based ceramic tools are fabricated by hot pressing, which involve mixing of fine grained alumina with 20 30 % volume of TiC and TiN powders and pressing at a temperature range of 1773 - 2073 K and a pressure between 10-40 MPa as reported by Ezugwu (1994). Mixed alumina based ceramic tools are black or dark brown in colour when TiC or TiN is added. These ceramic cutting tools are generally used for machining of hardened steels because of their increased hardness. 2.4.3 Whisker reinforced ceramic cutting tool materials The reinforcement of silicon carbide whiskers in the alumina matrix improves the strength and fracture toughness of the composite. Whiskers are strong and stiff single crystals and they are grown under carefully controlled conditions. Due to their high purity and lack of grain boundaries, whiskers approach the theoretical maximum strength along their axes. Whiskers or fibres exhibit high strength only in the axial direction, therefore, their orientation within the matrix must be completely random to avoid anisotropic properties. Silicon carbide whiskers have a diameter of 0.5 m and the length vary from 10-50 m. The introduction of SiC whiskers in the alumina matrix not only increases the

29

strength and fracture toughness but also the thermal shock resistance of the composite. Bergstrom (1986) has reported that there is an improvement in thermal conductivity of the composite upto 40%, thus reducing the thermal gradient, and improving the ability of the composite to withstand thermal shocks. The silicon whisker reinforced composite material also has a low coefficient of thermal expansion, which is a desirable property for a cutting tool material. The strengthening mechanism of this type of composite alumina ceramic tools is known as whisker pullout. In this mechanism the matrix may fail by cracking, but still it will be held together by the whisker embedded within the matrix. The total failure will occur by gradual pullout of the whisker from the matrix. The other potential strengthening mechanisms are modulus load transfer, interfacial sliding, debonding, micro cracking and crack deflection. The essential requirements of the whisker for effective strengthening are higher Youngs modulus and tensile strength, comparable thermal expansion coefficients and little chemical reaction to the matrix as pointed out by Sukyoung Kim (1994). Richards and Aspinwall (1989) have reported that the SiC whisker reinforced alumina ceramic cutting tools are produced by hot pressing the mixture of alumina and SiC whiskers about 1 hour at 1523 - 2273 K under a pressure of 28-69 MPa and at a furnace vacuum of 1.3 MPa. SiC whisker reinforced alumina ceramic cutting tools are used to machine difficult-to-machine materials like nickel based alloys.