Embryology: Development of Endocrine Organs Basic embryology of the pituitary gland Neurohypophysis formed by infundibulum Infundibulum is downgrowth (evagination)

n) of floor of diencephalon just posterior to the optic chiasm Adenohypophysis formed by Rathke pouch, an ectodermally derived evagination from the roof of the oral cavity Infundibulum grows and expands distally, while remaining attached to floor of brain (hypothalamus) Forms infundibular stalk and pars nervosa Rathke pouch looses connection to pharynx, forms epithelial vesicle, and grows around infundibular stalk o Anterior wall of vesicle grows extensively to form pars distalis o Posterior wall grows only a little and fuses into pars nervosa, forming pars intermedia o Portion that grows around infundibular stalk becomes pars tuberalis o Remnant of vesicular lumen forms natural anatomical cleft allowing pituitary gland to be separated easily into anterior and posterior lobes Class notes: Infundibular stalk and pars nervosa kind of like an extension of the hypothalamus. Rathkes pouch: starts as an evagination, forming a vesicular structure, epithelial lined, immediately adjacent to the floor of the brain begins symmetrical, with epithelial layer on its posterior and anterior surface. The anterior half of the vesicles proliferates to form the pars distalis, the posterior part grows out into and incorporated with the pars nervosa making pars intermedia. Then a small portion forms a between them making the pars tuberalis. Rathkes becomes disconnected from the larynx. The remnant forms a natural divisional plane with two parts, an anterior and posterior lobe. Clinical anomalies & fetal functions of pituitary gland Pharyngeal hypophysis is essentially ectopic adenohypophysis located in roof of pharynx- due to persistent proximal root of Rathke pouch (fails to degenerate Craniopharyngiomas structures that also arise from distal remnants of Rathke pouch. Two varieties: o Less often, intrasellar lesions causing pituitary dysfunction, e.g. diabetes insipidus [ADH deficiency] or growth failure [in children] (within the selitucica where the pit gland projects into o More often, suprasellar lesions causing visual disturbances because of effects on optic chiasm (bc of the impingement of the optic chiasm)

Basic embryology of the pineal gland Pineal arises as an epithelial thickening of the caudal roof plate of the diencephalons Evagination then occurs, but pineal remains connected to brain Pineal later accumulates calcified corpora arenacea, which light up on CT-scans and serve as nice markers for midline of brain. Class notes: Thickening of the roof plate opposite side from the infundibulum a small evagination of tissue forming the pineal gland. It will eventually accumulate Ca2+, the chief significance is that it becomes a perfect marker for a CT scan, as its located right at the midline of the brain Basic embryology of the thyroid gland Arises as proliferative center at root of tongue, at the foramen cecum, thus endodermally derived. Descends as a bilobed diverticulum in front of pharynx, connected to tongue for a time by thyroglossal duct. Eventually resides over larynx, with two lateral lobes and an isthmus (remnant of thyroglossal duct) Thyroid follicular epithelial cells from endoderm; C-cells from neural crest cells entering caudal fourth pharyngeal pouch (ultimobranchial body), which then becomes fused with and dispersed throughout thyroid

Clinical anomalies and fetal functions of thyroid gland

Ectopic thyroid tissue can be found anywhere along route of descent of gland and is subject to the same disease as normal thyroid tissue (thryoid tissue on abnormal area, anywhere on route down can located it by giving radioactive iodine to find if there are other disease processes area bc it will light up just like the thyroid gland) Class notes: Midsagital section of the embryo on left, foramen cecum still visible where the thyroglossal duct arises, at the base in which the thyroid gland emerges. eventually settles at the lower part of the larynx. This

route of migration is the site of the persistent thyroidremnants giving pieces to thyroid tissue. Thyroglassal cysts are invariably found in midline, usually over hyoid bone. Class notes: Places where there can be thyroglossal cystic remnants of the thyroid anywhere on to the route of descent. Invariably they are midline structure, especially over the hyoid bone. This ectopic tissue can also differentiate into thyroid epithelium. Main idea: they can function (or malfunction) as endocrine glands in those spots. The cysts are mobile, but painless.

Basic embryology of the parathyroid glands Arise from endoderm in cranial portions of third and fourth pharyngeal pouches. Pouches are bilateral, yielding four parathyroids Cranial third pouches form inferior parathyroids and cranial fourth pouches forms superior parathyroids Class notes: Bilaterally symmetric structure in the head and neck of the embryo. In lower vertebrates, they are the structures that form the gills operculum of the fish, on the side of the heads, covers the gills. Humans have operculum that is fused to side of face. An abnormality can be a fistula of the pharyngeal apparatus, leading to a hole in the side of the neck. Class notes: (picture on left) There are masses of mesenchymal tissue have an ectodermal side on left and endodermal side on right part of the four pharyngeal arch. Between pharyngeal archs, there are four clefts: the first one is the external ectodermal auditary meatis for the hole for hearing; second one is rudimentary; third is the parathyroid gland/thymus (inferior); forth is the parathyroid gland (superior) and ultimobranchial body in which c-cells arise. The third and fourth clefts have a cranial and caudal component Class notes: (picture on right) Thyroid migrating down over the larynx, the 3rd pharyngeal pouch, migrated down making the inferior parathyroid, the 4th migrates down only a little to make the superior parathyroid. Pharyngeal apparatus is bilaterally symmetric fused in the midline.

Clinical anomalies and fetal functions of parathyroid glands Because of complex migration, position and even number of (especially inferior) parathyroid glands can be highly variable Patients with parathyroid adenomas, which secrete parathormone, will have hyperparathyroidism, and surgeons must be careful to locate all malignant parathyroid tissue Class notes: The number or location of the parathyroid glands can be variable but should have a pair of superior and a pair of inferior. Anomolies of the parathyroids cause moans (muscles pain), stones (kidney stones), and groins (joint pains, fractures). Can be treated by removal of the parathyroid tissue, the malignant parts. Basic embryology of the adrenal glands Arises from two rudiments o Adrenal cortex comes from mesothelial cells migrating into mesenchyme of body in two waves o Adrenal medulla comes from neural crest cells that migrate into association with first-wave fetal cortex Fetal cortex partially engulfs medullary cells derived from neural crest Second wave of migration from mesothelium forms thin shell around thick fetal cortex By puberty, fetal cortex has thinned out, forming definitive zona reticularis and second-wave cells form thicker, superficial layers of definitive cortex (zona fasciculata and zona glomerulosa) Eventually, cortex completely surrounds medulla Class notes: The cortex is the steroid secreting multilayered outer shell the epithelial cells arise from mesothelial cells that line the peritoneal cavity (celomic cavity) becoming the precursor of the adrenal cortex, of which there are two parts: first wave creates fetal cortex. The second wave makes the thin shell around the cortex. The inner part of the cortex will be degenerated and replaced by the definitive cortex, which eventually form the three zones/layers, ZG, ZF, ZR. So the cortex is mesodermally derived from two waves of mesynchimal celomic cells. Medulla is from the neural crest! Class notes: (picture on left) Cross section of the body of the embryo: many ganglia and plexuses forming, and migrating down to form the adrenal gland. The celomic cavity is thickening and proliferating into the mesenchyme. Class notes: (picture on right). The celomic endothelial cells making horshoe shape mass of cells, and the neural crest derivates migrate in the center.

Clinical anomalies and fetal functions of fetal adrenal function and postnatal development of adrenal glands Placenta and fetal adrenal work together to meet fetal steroidogenic needs Placenta makes progesterone, which fetal cortex converts to cortisol, used in many ways, including trigger for type II cell development and surfactant production in the lungs Fetal adrenal supplies substrates for placental estrogen synthesis After birth, placental connection lost, and childs adrenal becomes more like adult adrenal Class notes: In a pregnant woman, the placenta itself is an important endocrine organ, important for forming steroidogenic hormones especially in regard to the fetus. In other words, fetal adrenal gland and the placenta work together to feed the needs of the fetus. Ex of cooperation: the placenta makes progesterone, which is used by the fetal adrenal gland and is important for the formation of type II cells in the lungs (their differentiation is cortisol dependant). Another example, fetus contributes to the estrogen levels of the placenta. After birth the placenta changes and elaborates from thin shell forming an adult style adrenal cortex. Enteroendocrine Cells - widely distributed in GI & Respiratory Systems; many (but not all) enteroendocrine cells are neural crest derivatives, like adrenal medulla Gonadal Endocrine Tissues - arise in mesoderm in developing gonads