ENDOSKELETON OF VERTEBRATES Axial Skeleton COMPONENTS OF THE ENDOSKLETON CARTILAGE CHONDROGENESIS BONES OSTEOGENESIS DIVISIONS: 1.

1.) AXIAL VERTEBRATES, RIBS, SKULL, HYOID BONE 2.) APPENDICULAR LIMBS, GORDLES, FINS BASIC STRUCTURE OF A VERTEBRAE 1.) ATYPICAL VERTEBRATE 2.) TYPICAL VERTEBRATES A. NEURAL SPINE B. TRANSVERES PROCESS C. NEURAL CANAL D. CENTRUM VERTEBRAE, RIBS AND STERNAE 1.) ARCH 1 OR 2 ARCHES NEURAL ARCH SPINAL CORD FORMS THE HAEMAL CANAL WHICH ENCLOSED THE CAUDAL ARTERY AND VEINS 2.) PROCESSES PROJECTIONS ARCHES CENTRA 3.) CENTRUM BODY OF VERTEBRATES PROCESSESPROJECTIONS FROM ARCHES AND CENTRA 1.) DIAPHOPHYSIS LATERAL PROJECTIONS (TRANSVERSE PROCESS) 2.) ZYGAPOPHYSIS ARTICULATION BETWEEN SUCCESSIVE VERTEBRAE A. PREZYGAPOPHYSIS-DIRECTED ANTERIORLY B. POSTZYGAPOPHYSIS-DIRECTED POSTERIORLY 3.) PARAPOPHYSIS - LATERAL PROJECTIONS FROM THE CENTRA OF FEW TETRAPODS CENTRA OF BICIPITAL RIB (2 HEADED RIBS) 4. )HYPAPOPHYSES MIDVENTRAL PROJECTIONS FROM THE CENTRA OF THE SNAKES AND AMNIOTES

- SITES OF ATTACHMENT FOR CERTAIN MUSCLES AND TENDONS 5.) BASOPOPHYSES CENTRA OF FISHES TYPES OF CENTRUM (BODY) 1.) AMPHICOELOUS CONCAVE AT BOTH ENDS - EX. FISHES, TELEOSTS - CENTRUM IS OCCUPIED BY SOFT NOTOCHORDAL TISSUE 2.) PROCOELOUS CONCAVE ANTERIORLY, CONVEX POSTERIORLY - EX. FROGS 3.) OPISTHOCOELOUS CONCAVE POSTERIORLY, CONVEX ANTERIORLY - EX. REPTILES SALAMANDERS 4.) HETEROCOELOUS SADDLE SHAPED CENTRUM EX.CERVICALVERTEBRAE OF BIRDS 5.) ACOELOUS FLAT CENTRUM AT THE BOTH ENDS EX. MAN VERTEBRAE SKULL: 3 BASIC COMPONENTS 1.) NEUROCRANIUM CHONDRAFACATON/ ENDOSKELETON (PRIMARY BRAINCASE) 2.) DERMATOCRANIUM ROOFING BONES 3.) SPLANCHNOCRANIUM VISCERAL SKELETON 1.) FLOOR OF THE SKULL 2.) ROOF 3.) JAWS

I.

FUNCTIONS OF THE NEUROCRANIUM

1.) PROTECTS THE BRAIN AND SENSE ORGAN

2.) ARISES AS CARTILAGE TO FACILITATE HEAD CIRCUMFERENCE REDUCTION DURING PARTURITION 3.) OSSIFY PARTLY OR WHOLLY AS HARD BONE CARTILALIGINOUS STAGE OF SKULL 1.) PARACHORDAL CARTILAGE ANT. END OF THE NOTOCHORD BENEATH THE MIDBRAIN - INCORPORATED TO THE NOTOCHORD TO FORM BASAL PLATE (SINGLE, BROAD CARTILAGE) 2.) PRECHORDAL CARTILAGE - UNDERNEATH THE FOREBRAIN - EXPANDS AND UNITE ACROSS THE MIDLINE AT THE ANT. ENDS THEN FORM ETHMOID PLATE (FLOOR OF THE SKULL) SENSE CAPSULES: 1.) OLFACTORY (NASAL) CAPSULE SURROUNDING THE OLFACTORY EPITHELIUM 2.) OTIC CAPSULE COMPLETELY SURROUNDING THE OTOCYSTS W/C IS THE DEVELOPING INNER EAR FORAMINA - TRANSMITS NERVES AND VASCULAR CHANNELS 3. OPTIC CAPSULE - FORMS AROUND THE RETINA,ACT AS AN ORBIT - THE SCLEROTIC COAT OF THE EYEBALL - DOES NOT FUSE WITH THE RETINA OF THE NEUROCRANIUM, THUS THE EYEBALL IS FREE TO MOVE INDEPENDENTLY OF THE SKULL - EYE MOVEMENTS: A. SACCADIC C. CONJUGATION B. PURSUIT D. FIXATION SCLERAL RINGS - surrounds the eye and maintain the

shape of the eyeball SCLERA white of the eye, protected by sclerotic coat PLICAE SEMILUNARIS - third eyelid that corresponds to the nictitating membrane of the frogs eye HYPOPHYSEAL FENESTRA accomodates the hypophysis and the internal carotid arteries PRECHORDAL CARTILAGE- trabeculae cranii OSSIFICATION CENTERS 1. OCCIPITAL CENTER - the 4 bones surrounding the foramen magnum - 2 exoccipital, 1 basioccipital, 1 supraoccipital - in man, these 4 bones unite to form the occipital bone with occipital condyles - in modern amphibians, one or more of these bones remain cartilaginous 2. SPHENOID CENTER underlying the brain - BASISPHENOID - ALISPHENOID - PRESPHENOID PLEUROSPHENOID - ORBTIOSPHENOID - In man, these bones are fused forming the single sphenoid bone - in frogs, parasphenoid is the only ossified bone 3. ETHMOID CENTER - SPHENETHMOID in frogs, the sole bone arising from ethmoid and sphenoid - MESETHMOID contributes to the cartilaginous nasal septum in birds and mammals - ECTHETHMOID develop from nasal passageway of sphenodon - TURBINAL BONES (CHONCHAE) - walls of the nasal passgaeways of crocodilians,

birds, and mammals - CRIBRIFORM PLATE in mammals,this is perforated by olfactory foramina which transmit bundles of olfactory nerve fibers from olfactory epihtelium to the brain 4. OTIC CENTER - bones forming the ears a. prootic c.epiotic b. opisthotic d. periotic - in birds and mammals, the 3 bones are fused - in reptiles, opisthotic fused to exoccipital - periotic and squamosal temporal bone DERMATOCRANIUM - Bones closed the Skull (Dermal Bones) - Forms to the top side of the skull - Function: For Protection, serve as roof of the skull - Components: 1. Roofting Bones Fronto Parietal 2. Primary Bone of the Palate 3. Dermal Bone of the Jaw 4. Opecular Bone Fishes - Supraopercular - Preopercular - Interopercular - Large Opercular UPPER JAW - Palaquadrate Cartilage Ossify to form the right and left jaw In Fishes Remains of cartilage for Chondrichthyes & for osteichthyes they Ossify to form the Quadrate bone. Maillae & Premaxillae Tooth Bearing of Bones

Primary Palatal Bone Roof of the Dropharyngeal cavity of the fishes & of the oral cavity of tetrapods. Contd.. Components: 1. Parasphenoid Unpaired Bone 2. Vomers 3. Palatine 4. Pterygoids 5. Ectopherygoids 6. Choanae Internal Nares FUSION OF NEUROCRANIUM AND DERMATOCRANIUM 1. FISHES - Cyclostomes and Amia remains cartilaginous - Garfishes ossifies - Roofing Bones of the bony Fishes 1. frontal 2. supraoccipital 3. parietal 4. postemporal 2. AMPHIBIANS - Anurans and urodeles, the neurocranium remains cartilaginous -in apodans, it is ossified fro burrowing - anurans are with platybasic skull 3. REPTILES - with ossified neurocranium, dentary, and occipitals - temporal fossae a partial complete secondary palate - temporal fenestra cavernous opening of temporal region of amniotes TYPES OF TEMPORAL FOSSAE 1. ANAPSIDS no temporal fossae - ex. Dinosaurs 2.SYNAPSIDS with one temporal fossae

- ex. Extinct reptiles with 2 temporal fossae - living reptiles,crocodiles,sphenodon 4. EUROPSIDS with one lateral temporal fossae - ex. Extinct reptiles *** TURTLE- with enigmatic skull - no temporal fossae, loss dermal bones 4. AVES - ossified bone, bulging outward forming TROPIBASIC SKULL - bones forming the beaks - upper jaw * maxillae,premaxillae,nasals - lower jaw * dentary - 2 functional regions of the skull 1. solid bony box (neurocranium & dermatocranium) - houses the brain,olfactory organs, eyeball, and hearing and equilibrium complex 2. elongated beak - procuring and handling area 4. MAMMALS - skulls are with fontannels - modifications: 1. dentary forms the mandible - the only movable bone of the lower jaw 2. temporal region 2 3. altered side secondary palate pterygoid bone auditory ossicles 3.DIAPSIDS * malleus, incus,

stapes CRANIAL KINESIS The independent movement of parts of the skull The condition in which snakes swallow food due to presence of ectopterygoid bone In mammals ectopterygoid is lost, the styloid process is left, located in the visceral skeleton III. SPLANCNOCRANIUM Skeleton of the pharyngeal arches In fishes the skeleton of jaws, gill arches The balstemas are from the neural crests and arise from the neuroectoderm MODIFICATION OF THE SPLANCNOCRANIUM 1. CYCLOSTOMES - unique visceral skeleton - no palatpqudrate or merkels cartilage - a cartilaginous branchial basket located at the base of the skin of the pharyngeal arch 2. BONY FISH - visceral skeleton resembles that of the shark except that is ossifies - hyoid arc consist of a larger number of components TYPES OF JAW SUSPENSION A. HYOSTYLIC fishes - hyomandibular cartilage is braced against the otic capsule - posterior end of the palatoquadrate is braced against the hyomandibula B. AMPHISTYLIC older sharks - hyomandibula and one or more processes of palatoquadrate are braced independently against the braincase C. AUTOSTYLIC - lungfishes and tetrapods - palatoquadrate is attached independently against the braincase 3. AMPHIBIANS - Palatoquadrate is enclosed by the membrane bone and its caudal end become quadrate bone

Merkels cartilage are invested, caudal ends become the articular bone In anurans, hypomandibula become the columella & the remainder of the 2nd,3rd,part of the 4th arch become the HYOID SKELETON 4TH & THE 5TH become the cartilage of the larynx 4. MAMMALS - Articular and quadrate bones become ossicles of the middle ear (malleus and incus)