What is an Computer? Definition of Computer A device that accepts input, processes data, stores data, and produces output.

A machine which is composed of hardware and software and can exist in variety of sizes and configurations History of Computers Generation of Computers Zeroth Generation Invention of mechanical computers (1642 1946) First Generation vacuum tube based technology (1946 -1954 ) Second Generation Transistor based technology (1954 -1964 ) Third Generation Integrated(IC) based technology. (1964 -1978 ) Fourth Generation (1978 till date ) Fifth Generation large scale integration (LSI), networked computing , the Internet, and the WWW. Artificial Intelligence

Zeroth Generation (1642 1946) Marked by invention of mechanical computers. 1642 Pascaline 1822 Difference Engine 1834 Analytical Engine 1880 Counting machine by Herman Hollerith 1944 First Electro Mechanical computer Mark 1 Examples 14th Century. - Abacus - an instrument for performing calculations by sliding counters along rods. 1642 - Pascaline--a mechanical calculator built by Blaise Pascal 1850 - Difference Engine , Analytical Engine--Charles Babbage. Mechanical computer 1939 -1942 - Atanasoff Berry Computer - built at Iowa State by Prof. John V. Atanasoff and graduate student Clifford Berry. Had a memory storage of 3,000 bits. 1940s - Colossus - vacuum tube computing machines broke Hitler's Enigma codes. 1946 - ENIAC--World's first electronic, large scale, general-purpose computer

ABACUS The abacus is a device typically consisting of beads strung on wires or wooden rods, which can be moved from one side of the rack to another to indicate numbers.

PASCALINE (1642) Invented by Blaise Pascal Could only add and subtract

Charles Babbage

Differential Engine

Babbages Analytical Engine

First Generation (1946 1954) Vaccum tubes or valves used as basic component Advantages Faster than earlier mechanical devices. Disadvantages Consumed power Generated too much heat Unreliable and broke down frequently Regular maintenance

Second Generation (1954 1964) Marked by use of transistor AT & T Bell Laboratories invented transistors Introduction of ALGOL, FORTON, and COBOL. I/O processor to supervise input output operations

Example NCR was first all transistor computer

Advantages & Disadvantages of Second Generation Computers Advantages Smaller in size and consumed less power Slightly faster and reliable Disadvantages Limited Storage capacity Regular maintenance Third Generation (1964 1978) Marked by invention of integrated circuit (IC) or chip. ROM (Read only memory) and RAM (Random access memory Microprogramming came into being Access to techniques for parallel processing like pipelining and multiprocessing were introduced. Pros and Cons of Third Generation Computers Pros Small in size, less power, less heat. Faster and reliable Cons Less storage capacity. Slower performance.

Fourth Generation (1978 Till date) VLSI technology Entire CPU, memory and other devices fabricated in single IC. Very powerful with high processing speed and high memory. Disadvantage Lack of intelligence. Fifth Generation ULSI Artificial intelligence. Robots Features of a Computer Speed Accuracy Storage. Computer Components Hardware Physical components of a computer Software Set of programs or instructions which is required to use the computer. Early Forms of Communication Humans communicate primarily through words, both spoken and written. From ancient times until about 150 years ago, messages were either verbal or written in form. Getting a message to a distant recipient was often slow, and sometimes the message (or the messenger) got lost in the process. As time and technology progressed, people developed devices to help them communicate faster over greater distances. Items such as lanterns, mirrors, and flags were used to send messages quickly over an extended visual range. Morse code

Telegraphs and transmissions.

early

radio

communication

used

codes

for

The most common, Morse code (named after its creator, Samuel F. B. Morse), is based on assigning a series of pulses to represent each letter of the alphabet. These pulses are sent over a wire in a series. The operator on the receiving end converts the code back into letters and words. Morse code remained in official use for messages at sea almost until the end of the twentieth centuryit was officially retired in late 1999. Binary Language Bits??? Bytes??? The Binary Language of Computers Bits Nibble Byte Word Kilobyte (KB) Megabyte (MB) Gigabyte (GB) Definition of Bit Bit A smallest unit of information, recognized by an computer Two states - 0 (off) - 1 (on) Definition of Byte Byte Group of 8 bits A unit of storage capable of storing a single character Nibble Half of 8bit (byte) Word 16 bits (2bytes)

Kilobyte (KB) 1024 bytes, but it is often used loosely as a synonym for 1,000 bytes Megabyte (MB) A unit of computer memory or data storage capacity equal to 1024 KB Gigabyte (GB) - A unit of computer memory or data storage capacity equal to 1,024 megabytes Binary notation 0 0 0 0 128 64 32 16 0 8 0 4 0 2 0 1

Example: 0 128 0 64 0

Number = 2 0 16 0 8 0 4 1 2 0 1

32

ASCII? ASCII Code ASCII American standard code for Information Interchange The standard code for handling text characters. ASCII standards consist of 128codes representing the English alphabet, punctuation, and certain control characters. Parallel and Serial Devices The telegraph and the individual wires in our PCs are serial devices. This means that only one element of code can be sent at a time. Like a one-lane tunnel, there is only room for one person to pass through at one time. All electronic communications areat some levelserial, because a single wire can have only two states: on or off. To speed things up, we can add more wires. This allows simultaneous transmission of signals.

Bus

Definition of BUS A bus is a group of electrical conductorsusually wiresrunning parallel to one another that can carry a charge from one point to another. A data path between the CPU and attached devices These conductors can be copper traces on a circuit board or wires in a cable. Usually, they are found in multiples of eight (8, 16, 32, 64, and so on). Early computers used eight conductors for the main system bus, thereby allowing the transmission of 8 bits, or 1 byte, of information at a time. The physical configuration of a bus isn't as important as its function. Classification of Bus Address Bus - Carries address from processor to memory location

Data Bus Transmit data from other devices to processor and vice versa. Control Bus Transmit control signals to other devices.

The Three Stages of Computing Input Processing Output Input First stage of computing Moves data from outside world into processor Processing Second stage of computing Manipulation of data.

Output Third stage of computing Display or printed output of processed information Components of Computer Components Involved in Input Process Input Devices Devices that are used to input data, information and instructions into the RAM. Two Types Basic Input devices Special Input devices Basic Input devices The pre-requisites for input operation Keyboard and mouse Keyboard Main input device Three types of keys alphanumeric keys, function keys, special keys. Mouse Pointing device Special Input devices Light pen Joystick Scanner Bar code reader Components involved in Processing Fundamental Components in Processing Mother Board Large circuit board inside the computer Chipset A group of computer chips or Integrated circuits when working together manage and control the computer system

Bus A group of parallel conductors found on the motherboard. Expansion slots Specialized sockets that allow additional devices called expansion cards to be attached to the motherboard Clock Establishes the maximum speed at which the processor can execute commands. Battery Protects unique information about the setup of computer Memory Stores temporary information that the CPU and software need to keep running Components Involved in Output Process Output Devices Hardware devices which are used to display or print the processed information Monitor Visual display unit commonly called monitor is the main output device. Monitor types : CGA, VGA, MDA. Printer Used to print output on an paper. Speaker Reproduce sound. Provide improved output from games and multimedia software Input and Output Devices Input/Output (I/O) Devices Some devices handle both input and output functions Floppy disk drive Low-capacity, removable, magnetic disks. Both read and write Used to store and easily transport information Hard disk drive High- capacity, magnetic disks. Storing data and program files

Known as fixed-disk Modem Converts computer data to information that can be transmitted over telephone wires and cable lines Network card An expansion card that allows several computers to connect to each other and share information and programs It is known as Network Interface Card (NIC) CD Recorder Copy data to a CD with this device Tape Drive Large capacity, magnetic, data storage devices. Ideal for backup and retrieval of large amount of data. Support Hardware Power Supply Surge Processor UPS Case System Chassis It is the cabinet which comprise of (CDROM, Floppy, hard disk etc.,) Cabinet have power on switch in front Component connectors in the back It should provide an environment interference to other electronic devices in the area

CPU (Central processing Unit) CPU is the main component or brain of a computer

Its function is to fetch, examine and then execute the instruction stored in the memory of the computer. CPU is built on a single chip or integrated circuit (IC) is called a microprocessor The CPU is the main IC chip on your computers motherboard. They come in different shapes, sizes and packages. Distinct Parts of CPU Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) It is responsible for the arithmetic and logical operations. All calculations and comparison are done here. Control Unit Controls the transfer of data and instructions among the other units of computer. Known as Central nervous system Manages and co-ordinates all units of computer. Clock Measures and allocates a fixed time slot for processing each and every micro operation. All switching activity in the computer occurs while the clock is sending a pulse. Clock rate measured in megahertz (MHz) or millions of cycles per second. Computer running 450MHz can do 44million simple calculations per second. Registers Small high speed circuits (memory locations) Temporary memory storage areas used during data manipulation It contains rows of microscopic switches that are set on and off. Buses

Bus is a connection between two components to transmit signals between them Processor Speed and Performance Issues MHz / GHz. MIPS. Factors Affecting Processor Speed. Processor Clock Speed and System Bus Speed.

Processor History From the 2MHz Intel 4004 launched in 1971 to the mind boggling 2 GHz Pentium 4 in 2002 from the same company-the Microprocessor technology has come across a long way over these thirty years. In 1976 Intel introduced its first 16bit processor known as 8086. Later released 8088. 8086/8088 Processors Number of Transistors CPU Speed (MHz) 4.77-8 Register Width External Data Bus Address Bus Internal Cache

Chip

Intel 8088 Intel 8086

29000

16bit

8bit

20bit

None

29000

4.77-8

16bit

16bit

20bit

None

IBM PC based upon 8086 and 8088 16KB Memory A cassette tape recorder or a floppy disk drive for program and data storage A non graphics monochrome monitor and monochrome display adapter Intel 80286 Processor In 1982, Intel came out with 6MHz microprocessor

Chip Intel 80286

CPU Speed (MHz) 6 12.5 MHz

Register Width 16bit

External Data Bus 16bit

Address Bus 24bit

Internal Cache None

IBM PC based on 286 IBM introduced PC AT (Advanced Technology) computer based on 286. Computers based on 80286chip featured Two memory modes Real and Protected Mode 16MB memory Multitasking Virtual memory support Real and Protected Mode Real Mode Address only the first 1MB of memory Known as Compatibility mode. Protected Mode Access to all memory on the system This memory can go beyond 16MB. Possibility of multitasking Running more than one program at a time. Virtual Memory Art of using hard disk space to hold data that is not immediately required by the processor, placed in and out of RAM as needed. Requires the use of operating systems more advanced that MS-DOS, this lead to development of products such as Microsoft Windows, IBM OS/2 and PC version of UNIX

Intel 80486 Processors In 1989, Intel came with 486 line of processors.

No of transistors 1.2million Data bus 32bit Address bus 32 bit RAM 4GB RAM Virtual Memory 64TB 8KB Cache memory 168 Pin Socket Additional Feature of 486 Pipelining Technique Two instructions can be processed at a time, one instruction is processed in processor, while other instruction is processed using pipeline while the result is given by processor only. The addition of standard heat sink and a fan mounted on the CPU, powered by the PC. Cache memory Frequently used data/instructions are stored in cache memory to increase the speed of processor. Pentium (80586) In 1990, Intel came out with 586 series. Address Bus 32bits Data Bus 64bits On board Math Co-processor (MCP) Two 8KB cache Socket 7 ZIF socket Pin Arrangement PGA Features of Pentium Processor ZIF (Zero Insertion Force ) Socket - This socket has a small handle or lever on the side of the socket that unclips and lifts, releasing the pins completely. You can just lift the CPU out, drop another in and pull the lever down, inserting under its little clip. Math Coprocessor It does all the calculations involving floating point (decimal) numbers, such as scientific calculation and algebraic functions. Two 8KB cache memory one for data and other for instructions. Chip CPU Spe Internal Cache External Cache Features

ed (MH z) 150-200 Pentium Pro MHz Pentium MMX 133-233 MHz

8KB

1MB

16KB

16KB

Pentium 2

233-450 MHz

32KB

52KB

Dynamic execution Super Scalar architecture Dynamic Branch Prediction Dynamic Execution Multiple Branch Prediction Data flow analysis

Pentium 3 INTEL PENTIUM III - Initially the Pentium III 500 MHz was released in 1999; shortly after its release, Intel introduced the Pentium III 550 MHz processor. The Pentium III chip continued to use the SLOT 1 and could be used on previous Pentium II motherboards with BIOS support. Before its release, a big controversy concerning privacy. The Intel Pentium III chips have an ID for each chip helping to authenticate peoples' purchases over the Internet. However, many argued that this was another way for someone to find out personal information about the individual without their consent. Intel disabled this feature by default and allowed it to be enabled after releasing the chip. Pentium 4 A 32-bit microprocessor, hyper-pipelined technology, a rapid execution engine and a 100MHz system bus that delivers three times the bandwidth of the Pentium III processor are designed to enhance online gaming, digital video and photography, speech recognition and MP3 encoding. Current speeds run at 1.4 and 1.5 GHz.

Pentium 4 Processor features

The Pentium 4 processor also features: New Level 1 cache technology - Execution Trace Cache, which delivers a higher performance instruction cache than the Pentium III through a more efficient use of cache memory. Net Burst micro architecture doubles the pipe length depth to 20 stages, and increases the frequency capability. Intel Core Duo Processors Delivering the best overall performance period. With Intel core 2 Duo processors powering your desktop and laptop PCs you will get the latest performance rich technologies, including up to 4MB of shared L2 cache, upt o 1066 MHz front side Bus for desktop. Technologies Dual Core Technology Two mobile optimized execution cores in a single processor designed to increase performance and power savings Wide Dynamic Execution Intel Wide Dynamic Execution improves performance and efficiency as each core can complete up to four full instructions simultaneously using an efficient 14 stage pipeline Intel Advanced Smart Cache With up to 4MB L2 cache, offers more efficient data sharing, providing enhanced performance, responsiveness and power savings Advanced Digital Media Boost Intel Advanced Digital Media Boost delivers enhanced performance for a broad range of applications including video, speech and image, photo processing, encryption, engineering and scientific Smart Memory Access Performance by optimized available bandwidth in the system bus and memory subsystems, it reduces memory latencies to provide data to the processor when and where its needed Intel 64 An enabling technology that can take advantage of 64 bit operating systems and applications as they become available

Inserting a CPU

There are several types of CPU sockets available. Today virtually all desktop PCs come with some variation of the SEC packaging. Other CPUs are generally not worth upgrading and may be one of two common types of package: Low-insertion-force (LIF) Zero-insertion-force (ZIF) ZIF Socket with CPU Inverted showing Matching pins

SEC Package/Slot 1 Upgrades The Pentium II and III series are most commonly packaged in an SEC. This package, is very simple to work with. You will need a motherboard mount and might have to purchase a fan and heat sink before installing the CPU. Check the manual for jumper-setting adjustments and follow the simple directions that come with the CPU. The actual task involves seating two plastic pins, sliding two guides over the sides of the CPU, and then pushing the frame and CPU into the slot on the board. With dual CPU boards, you need to know which slot to use, and you might have to place a special card (which comes with the motherboard) in the second CPU position if it is to remain empty. A Slot-1 Motherboard

Pentium processor in an SEC package and Slot 1

Power Supply

Power Problems and Protection Equipments PCs need clean AC supply power for proper functioning. Developing countries like India suffer from poor quality supply power. problems are generated at major stations and not at the point of power generation. problems such as sags, spikes, surges, blackouts are increasing at an alarming rate. Power Supply Computer needs power for its components to operate properly The device responsible for supplying power to the computer is the power supply. located at the rear of the computer case with one or more cooling fans. The Importance of Power Supply in PC Stability. Cooling. Energy Efficiency. Expandability. Types of power supplies Linear power supplies Switched power supplies Linear power supplies voltage from the power grid is stepped down from 127 V or 220 V to a lower value (e.g. 12 V) using a transformer. Rectified by a set of diodes into pulsating voltage. Filtered by an electrolytic capacitor into DC Regulated by a zener diode or by a voltage regulator integrated circuit into true DC voltage

Disadvantage of Linear power supplies

The size of the transformer and the capacitance of the electrolytic capacitor are inversely proportional to the frequency of the input AC voltage the transformer and the capacitor size will increases and makes linear power supplies bulky. Switched power supplies input voltage frequency is increased to 10-20 KHz before feeding into the transformer . With input voltage frequency increased, the transformer and the electrolytic capacitor can be very small. Used on the PC and several other electronic equipments, like VCRs. Power Supply Fundamentals Voltage conversion - changing the 115/230 VAC line voltage into one or more other voltages as determined by application. Rectification - turning the AC into DC. Filtering - smoothing the ripple of the rectified voltage's. Regulation - making the output voltages independent of line and load variations. Isolation - separating the supply outputs from any direct connection to the AC line. Voltage The typical voltages 3.3volts 5volts 12volts The 3.3 and 5volts used by digital circuits The 12volts is used to run motors in disk drives and fans PC Power Supply Functions Delivers required DC power.

Cooling the System Inside. Protection of System Components. Form Factors Different types based on size, plug type and voltages they can deliver. AT ATX ATX12V v1.x Floppy Disk power connector Standard Peripheral power connector AT power connectors AT power supplies used with AT cases and AT motherboards Delivers four voltages, +5 V, +12 V, -5 V and -12 V, uses a 12-pin connector, divided into two six-pin connectors. six-pin connectors are named as P8 & P9 to avoid mistakes you must install these connectors in a way that the black wires are placed on the center of the connector AT Power Connector wire details
Pin 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Color Orange Red Yellow Blue Black Black Black Black White Red Red Red Output Power good +5v +12v -12v Ground Ground Ground Ground -5v +5v +5v +5v

ATX Power Connector

ATX Power Supplies are used with ATX cases and ATX motherboards.

ATX Power Connector wire details Pin 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Color Orange Orange Black Red Black Red Black Gray Purple Yellow Output +3.3v +3.3v Ground +5v Ground +5v Ground Power Good +5VSB +12v Pin 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Color Orange Blue Black Green Black Black Black White Red Red Output +3.3v -12V Ground Power ON Ground Ground Ground -5V +5v +5v

Differences between AT and ATX power supplies One extra voltage line is available, + 3.3 V. ATX uses a single 20-pin connector ATX has a power-on wire for turning off the power by software. ATX12V v1.x Power Connector

Modern CPUs requires more power Two extra connectors were added to ATX power supplies a four-pin 12 V connector and a six-pin auxiliary connector providing +3.3 V and + 5 V wires.

ATX12V v1.x Power Connector wire details 6 Pin Auxiliary Connector ATX12V 12V Connector

Pin 1 2 3 4 5 6

Color Black Black Black Orange Orange Red

Output Ground Ground Ground +3.3V +3.3V +5V

Pin 1 2 3 4

Color Black Black Yellow Yellow

Output Ground Ground +12V +12V

SATA Power Connector ATX12V version 1.3 introduced the Serial ATA power connector, which has fifteen pins. Six- pin auxiliary connector on an ATX12V V1.x power supply SATA Power Connector wire details 1 Orange 2 3 Orange Orange

+3.3V +3.3V +3.3V

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Black Black Black Red Red Red Black Black Black Yellow Yellow Yellow

Ground Ground Ground +5v +5v +5v Ground Ground Ground +12v +12v +12v

Other Form Factors EPS12V: This form factor was specified by SSI (Server System Infrastructure) for entry-level server power supplies. This kind of power supply uses the same motherboard plug as ATX12V v2.x and a new extra eight-pin 12 V motherboard power connector Power supply manufacturers provide models that are ATX12V v2.x and EPS12V at the same time. EPS 12 V Connector Wire Details PIN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 COLOR Black Black Black Black Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow OUTPUT Ground Ground Ground Ground +12V +12V +12V +12V

Floppy Disk Connector Floppy drive power connectors are most commonly used to power floppy disk drives. Known as Berg Connectors

Yellow wire: +12V Red wire: +5V Black wires: Ground Hard disk/CD-ROM Connector

Used to connect to device such as a CD-ROM or Hard Drive. known as large Molex connector. PIN 1 2 3 4 Wire Color Yellow Black Black Red Signal +12v Ground Ground +5v

Other Power connectors EPS12V form factor was specified by SSI (Server System Infrastructure) for entry-level server power supplies. uses the same motherboard plug as ATX12V v2.x and a new extra eight-pin 12 V motherboard power connector, used by EPS12V motherboard LFX12V stands for Low Profile Form Factor CFX12V: CFX stands for Compact Form Factor. TFX12V: TFX stands for Thin Form Factor. SFX12V: SFX stands for Small Form Factor.

Power supplies as coolers Remove hot air out of the case. The cold air enters through the grooves in the frontal part of the case. Hot air from devices like processor, video card, chipset, etc is retained on the top of the case. Cooling fan works as an exhaust fan, pulling hot air from this area and blowing it out of PC. Hi-end power supplies have two or three cooling fans. space for installing an extra fan at the rear. Problems created by power supply fan Noise is produced by fans irritates the user Solution: Fan rotation speed changes depending on the power supply temperature. the fan rotation speed is automatically reduced during low power need decreasing the noise making. There are power supplies types in which the control of cooling fan speed is not automatic, but through a selector switch at the rear. Stability Fluctuations can lock the computer or burn any of the computer peripherals. computer can resist to a certain voltage fluctuation without suffering any damage to its components. Output Voltage Fluctuation Minimum Maximum +5VDC 5% +4.75v +5.25V +12VDC 5% +11.40V +12.60V +5VDC 10% -4.5V -5.5V 12VDC 10% -10.8V -13.2V +3.3VDC 5% +3.14V +3.47V +5VDC 5% +4.75V +5.25V Power Supply Trouble shooting Most Common Problems The following probably account for 95% or more of the common SMPS ailments:

Supply dead, fuse blown - shorted switch mode power transistor and other semiconductors, open fusible resistors, other bad parts. Note: actual cause of failure may be power surge/brownout/lightning strikes, random failure, or primary side electrolytic capacitors with greatly reduced capacity or entirely open - test them before powering up the repaired unit. Supply dead, fuse not blown - bad startup circuit (open startup resistors), open fusible resistors (due to shorted semiconductors), bad controller components. One or more outputs out of tolerance or with excessive ripple at the line frequency (50/60 Hz) or twice the line frequency (100/120 Hz) - dried up main filter capacitors on rectified AC input. One or more outputs out of tolerance or with excessive ripple at the switching frequency (10s of kHz typical) - dried up or leaky filter capacitors on affected outputs. Audible whine with low voltage on one or more outputs - shorted semiconductors, faulty regulator circuitry resulting in over voltage crowbar kicking in, faulty over voltage sensing circuit or SCR, faulty controller. Periodic power cycling, tweet-tweet, flub-flub, blinking power light shorted semiconductors, faulty over voltage or over current sensing components, bad controller. When troubleshooting power supply issues, you first make sure you have the correct voltage set on the rear of the unit. You should see a red switch that can be set to 115V or 230V. Depending on the country you live. Power strips can fail, so be sure to try plugging the power cable directly into a working, properly grounded wall outlet. Inside the Case check the thin power wires running from the front of the case to the motherboard. These generally plug into the motherboard at the lower

right of the motherboard and may be labeled something like power sw or pw switch.

HARD DISK A, B: Floppy C: Os Installation D: Data E: F: 512 Byte. OS PATH [first 64Kb]. HARD DISK PARTITION MBR [Master Boot Recorder] 512 Bytes 512 Bytes 446 Bytes Program that calls the boot program on the OS boot record. 16 Bytes Description of the first partion [c:\] 1 Byte Bootable partition [address of boot file] 3 Bytes beginning location of the partition. 1 Byte System Indicator. [FAT/NTFS, FAT 32, FAT 16] FAT-File Allocation Table NTFS-N/W Transfer File System [or] New Technology File System. 3 Bytes encoding location of the partition. 4 Bytes First sector of the partition. 4 Bytes Number of sectors in the partition. 16 Bytes D:\ 16 Bytes E:\ 16 Bytes F:\ 2 Bytes Signature of the partition table [Ex.AA25] 512 Bytes remaining sectors for data storage.

HARD DRIVE TECHNOLOGIES Used by hard drive to interface with the system.[OS/other software installation] Used with in hard drive to read and write data to the drive.

 IDE-Integrated Drive Electronics/Integrated Development Environment TYPES OF HARD DRIVE INTERFACES EIDE-[Enhanced Integrated Development Environment] Interface standards used by most hard drives. Other Interface standards SCSI USB[pen drive] IEEE 1394[N/W purpose] Fiber channel[N/W purpose] STANDARDS 1. IDE/ATA 2. ATA-2 FAST ATA 3. ATA-3 4. ULTRA ATA FAST ATA-2 ULTRA DMA DMA/33 5. ULTRA ATA/66 ULTRA DMA/66 6. ULTRA ATA/100 7. ULTRA ATA/133 8. ATA-6 using] DATA READING SPEED 2.1 Mb/sec to 8.3 Mb/sec Speeds up to 16.6 MB/sec Little speed Increased Speeds up to 33.3MB/sec Speeds up to 66.6MB/sec Speed up to 100MB/sec Speed up to 133MB/sec Speed up to 133MB/sec[now

EIDE INTERFACE STANDARDS Modes of transferring data between hard drive and primary memory. DMA transfer mode PIO transfer mode[parallel I/O] IDE cabling methods[40 pins] Parallel ATA9PATA) Technology-40 conductor 20 pin[bulk data transfer]

 Serial ATA(SATA) Technology than PATA]

-4 wire 15 pins[SATA faster

CONFIGURING EIDE DRIVES To see this, at the starting of the system press F8/DEL key. EIDE standards support two IDE connections; A primary and a secondary Each connection can support up to two IDE devices foe a total of four devices on a system. Primary IDE channel, Master devise Primary IDE channel, Slave device Secondary IDE channel, Master device Secondary IDE channel, Slave device CONSIDERATION WHEN PURCHASING A HARDDRIVE Capacity[now 40 GB to 500 GB available] Spindle speed[disc speed, 360000 rpm] Technology Cache Match drive to mother board HARD DRIVE PARTITIONS Primary partition C:\ - Boot record - FAT - Directories - Files Extended partition Logical D:\ - Boot record - FAT - Directories - Files

Logical E:\ Boot record FAT Directories Files

CHOICE

OF THE FILE SYSTEM

FAT 16:

Supported by all windows system. FAT 32(VFAT): Supported by Windows 95 second edition, Windows 98, Windows 2000, and Windows XP. NTFS: Supported by Windows NT, Windows 2000, Windows XP. HARD DRIVE SIZE LIMITATION OS MAXIMUM SUPPORTED Dos and Windows 9x 2.1 GB: cannot be used on hard drives that FAT 16 exceed 8.4GB. Windows NT/2000/XP FAT 16 Windows 2000/XP FAT 32 Windows 9xFAT 32 4GB 32 GB

137 GB [32GB for OS, remaining for extension Files]. Larger than 137 GB

Windows 2000, XP With service pack FAT32 INSTALLING A HARD DRIVE

1. Set jumpers or DIP switches; physically install drive; attach power cord and data cable. 2. Inform CMOS of new drive 3. If installing an OS on the drive, boot from OS setup CD (and skip next two steps). 4. If drive is not intended to hold an OS, use F disk or Disk Management to create partitions and divide extended partition into logical drives. 5. For second drive, use format command or Disk management to high-level format each logical drive.

TROUBLE SHOOTING HARD DRIVE INSTALLATION:

 Check CMOS setup to verify that system BIOS recognizes large drives. [i.e., check jumper setup]. Verify status of F disk. Verify that format C:\ was done. Check configuration of CMOS setup. Confirm setting of DIP switches or Jumpers. Check connection of power cord and data cable. Refer a website of manufactures for suggestions. [If only data transfer is problem check serial cable connection from SMPS]. HARD DISK DRIVE

1 2 3

1 2 3

[Olden days]

1. 2. 3. 4.

Heads. [Now a day] Spindle motor Plattor Head actuator.

Winchester HDD:Discover by WINCHESTER Dual head assembly Head will be parking at parking zone (or) landing No information in landing zone More capacity. Revolution per minute- 3600 to 18,000 Now a day available IDE HDD 7200 rpm

CAPACITY OF CALCULATION

Number of cylinder* Number of heads*Number of Sectors*number of bytes per sector 760*14*50*512=260MB ACCESS TIME: SEEK TIME: Time take to reach the particular cylinder. SIZE OF HARD DISK 1) 5.25 olden days HDD 2) 3.5 now a day HDD HARD DISK INSTALLATION 1) HDD 2) Interface cable 3) Power supply 4) Jumper setting 5) CMOs setup. SET JUMPERS OR SWITCHES ON MOTHERBOARD 1. Serial ATA connector 2. Extra USB connector 3. Audio connector to CD drive 4. CPU auxiliary power connector 5. Power connector for CPU fan 6. Exhaust fan power 7. IDE connector for CD-RW drive 8. ATX power connector 9. Floppy drive connector 10. Group of pins for LED connectors FLOPPY DISK Primary storage device => ROM, RAM Secondary storage device=> 1.magnetic drum 2. Magnetic tape [ex: audio, video cassette] 3. Magnetic disk [ex: floppy] 4. Optical disk [ex: cd, DVD]

Types of floppy disk: Two types: 1) 5.25=>360KB,760KB,1.2MB,1.6MB used 2) 3.5 =>720KB,1.44MB,2.88MB used Floppy disk modes: Mylar paper with ferric oxide coating. 51/4 1 2 3 4 5 6 1) 2) 3) 4) 5 31/2

Read and write area: Where the data are read and write. Disk : Data area stored here. Spindle hole : Use to rotate the disk. Index hole : It is the hole to identify the starting sector of each track. 5) Write protect notch : If disk is write protected, datas area only read but cant write Any data or erase the disk. 6) Cover. Area of data: Side -0 Side -1 Track Side 0, 1 => Upper side and lower side. Datas stored in both sides. Connecting circle => Track Connection circle division => Sector [Capacity of 512 bytes per sector]. 1) 1.2MB=>51/4=> 80 tracks, 15 sectors, 2 sides. 2) 1.44MB=>31/2=> 80 tracks, 18 sectors, 2 sides.

3) 2.88MB=>31/2=>80 track, 36 sector, and 2 sides. Capacity calculation: Number of track*Number of sectors*Number of sides*Number of sector per bytes. 80*15*2*512=1228800 bytes=1200KB=>1.2MB 2 Identification: SSDD => Single Side Double Density =>180KB 51/4 2HD or DSHD=>Double Side Double Density => 1.2MB 51/4, 1.44MB 31/2 DSDD=>Double Side Double Density => 360KB,51/4 , 720KB,31/2 DSEHD=> Double Side Extra High Density => 2.88MB 31/2 [failure] Recording:

NS NS Head produced magnetic flux disk has magnetic recording time magnetic flux attached by magnetic particles. Formatting Floppy: Divided into number of tracks and sectors ordering magnetic particles: DBR [Disk Boot Record] Booting sides are stored here. FAT1 [File Allocation Table] First copy of FAT starting and Ending sector of each side. Ex: 123<EOF>45<EOF>6<EOF> EOF-End of File. FAT2 Second copy of FAT in case any problem in Fat1. The disk gets data from FAT2. FLOPPY DRIVE: Logic circuits:

Sensor circuits Read and write circuits Spindle motor control circuits Stepper motor control circuits Interface controller circuits

FLOPPY CENTERING MECHANISM: Door lock leaver:- It is used to protect the floppy coming out from the FDD while the R/W operation is going on. Spindle motor : - It is used for rotate the floppy. Head centering mechanism:a) Head: - It is used for reading and writing datas in the floppy disk. b) Head assembly or movement arms: - It is the assembly which holds W/R head. c) Stepper motor: - This motor used for move the head assemble. Sensor :-

a) b) c) d)

Photo Transistor Or Micro switch Write protect sensor: To sense the disk is write protect (or) not. Index sensor: To sense the staring sector of each track. Track zero sensors: To sense the head is in the track zero position. Disk change sensor: to sense the disk is change or not.

LED

MOTORS: Spindle motor: To rotate the disk in 360 rpm. Only in clockwise Stepper motor: Used to move the head front and back. Clockwise and anti clockwise.

INTERFACE CABLE: B Drive

34 pins

A Drive

Go to MBD 4 Pin power connector:-

Untwisted Area

Twisted

+12 V yellow [use for motors] +5V Red Ground (-) FLOPPY FORMAT METHOD: Slow format: C :\> Format a: [press Enter] Quick format: C :\> Format A:/Q [press Enter] System file transfer method: C :\> sys B: [press Enter] Floppy to floppy copy method without saving in HDD: C :\> disk copy A: A: [press Enter] FD to FD comparison: C :\> disk comp a: A: [press Enter] C :\> HD copy [press Enter] Auto verify + Verify & write FAT+: FAT - : Format destination *, + : Format destination (-) : Head Settle(+) : Head settle(-) Verbose mode(+) Verbose mode(-) : : : Auto verify write Data area only read Total area read Quick Format Slow Format Heads read and write properties are normal. Heads read and write properties are normal. To copy all the problems Copy only the first problem.

Expert mode(+)(*) Expert mode(-) Sound Fix (+) ON (-) OFF

: :

Without permission escape. With permission escape.

Error occurring on starts the system. 1. BIOS 2. POST BIOS POST ERROR 1 beeps 2 beep 3 beeps 4 beep 5 beep 6 7 8 9 beep beep beep beep DRAM refresh failure. The memory refresh circuit on mother board is Faulty. Parity circuit failure. A parity error was detected in the base memory [First 64K block] of the system. Base 64K Ram failure. a memory failure occurred with in the first 64K Of memory [To rectify the problem the Ram will be cleaned] System time failure. [Energy level of the CMOS battery goes slow]. Processor failure. The CPU on the system board has generated an Error. Keyboard controller 8042 Gate A20 error. Virtual mode [processor] exception error. Display memory R/W test failure. ROM-BIOS checksum failure. The ROM checksum value does not Match the value encode in the Bios. This is good indication that the bios Rom went bad. CMOs shutdown Register. The shutdown register for CMOs memory R/W error has failed. Cache error/External cache bad. The external cache is faulty. Post failed. This is caused by a failure of one of the hardware testing Procedures. Video failure. 1) Video BIOS ROM failure. 2) The video adapter installed has a horizontal retrace failure. Video failure.

10 beep 11 beep 2 short beeps 1 Long beep 2 short beep

1 Long beep 3 short beep

 1 Long beep Post successful

1) The video DAC has failed. 2) The monitor detection process has failed. 3) The video RAM has failed. This indicates that all H/W tests were completed without encountering errors.

BIOS ERROR MESSAGE 8042 GATE A20 ERROR Gate A20 on the keyboard controller is not working. Keyboard controller problem ADDRESS LINE SHORT1 Error in the address decoding circuitry. CACHE MAMORY BAD, DO NOT ENABLE CACHE! Cache memory is defective. CMOS BATTERY STATE LOW The battery power is getting low. It would be a good idea to replace the battery. CMOS CHECKSUM FAILURE After CMOS RAM value is saved, a checksum value is generated for error checking. The previous value is different from current value. CMOS SYSTEM OPTION NOT SET The values stored in CMOS RAM are either corrupt on non existent. CMOS DISPLAY TYPE MISMATCH The video type in CMOs RAM is not the one detected by the Bios. DISKETTE BOOT FAILURE The boot disk in floppy drive A: is corrupted. Is an operating system present? DISPLAY SWITCH NOT PROPER A video switch on the motherboard must be set to either color or monochrome. DMA ERROR Direct Memory Access It receives data from primary/secondary memory and sends it to cache. Error in Direct memory access control. 7 channels in DMA. DMA#1 ERROR Error in first channel. DMA#2 ERROR Error in second channel.

 FDD[Floppy Disk Drive] CONTROLLER FAILURE The BIOS cannot communicate with the floppy disk drive controller. Problem in floppy disk connector. HDD[Hard Disk Drive] CONTROLLER FAILURE The BIOS cannot communicate with the hard disk drive controller. Problem in hard disk connector KEYBOARD ERROR There is a timing problem with the keyboard. KB/INTERFACE ERROR There is an error in the keyboard connector. PARITY ERROR??? Parity error in the system memory at an unknown address. MEMORY PARITY ERROR AT XXXX Parity failed at the xxxx address. I/O CARD PARITY ERROR AT XXXX An expansion card failed at the address xxxx. DMA BUS TIMEOUT A device has used the bus signal for more than allocated time [around 8 microseconds].