1

SEMICONDUCTORS
Metals and Semiconductors:

Metals have no energy gap between valence and conduction bands. Semiconductors have an
energy gap between valence and conduction bands. This fact is established from the band
theory of solids. Raising the temperature of metals doesnt create additional electrons. In
semiconductor an increase in temperature breaks Si-Si bonds in the valence band and sends
electrons into the conduction band thereby increasing the number of conduction electrons.
Resistivity of metals increases with temperature while it decreases for semiconductors.
Metals have a positive coefficient of Resistivity while semiconductors have a negative
coefficient of Resistivity.

Concentration of electrons in the conduction band of an intrinsic
semiconductor:

Let dn be the number of electrons available between energy states E and E+dE in the
conduction band.
dn= Z(E) F(E)dE, where Z(E) dE is the density of states in the energy interval E and E+dE
and F(E) is the electron occupancy probability.
If E
c
is the energy corresponding to the bottom of the conduction band then the number of
electrons in the conduction band is given by

}

=
c
E
dE ) E ( F ) E ( Z n
where the density of states is given by
( ) dE E m
h
dE E Z
2 1 2 3
2
4
) (
3
t
=
Since the electron is moving in a periodic potential, m should be the effective mass.
Since the energy E starts at E
c

( ) ( ) dE E E m
h
dE E Z
c e
2 1
2 3
*
3
2
4
) ( =
t
.
The Fermi Dirac distribution function, gives probability of an electron occupying an energy
state E
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
=
T k
E E
exp
) E ( F
B
f
1
1
where E
f
is the Fermi level.
If T k ) E E (
B f
>>

|
|
.
|

\
|

~
T k
E E
exp ) E ( F
B
f
.
( ) ( ) dE
T k
E E
E E m
h
n
c
E B
f
c e
}

|
|
.
|

\
|
= exp 2
4
2 1
2 3
*
3
t
.

( ) ( ) dE
T k
E
E E
T k
E
m
h
c
E B
c
B
f
e
}

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
= exp exp 2
4
2 1
2 3
*
3
t

2

To solve this integral we put
x E E
c
= ; x E E
c
+ = dx dE =
( ) dx
T k
x E
x
T k
E
m
h
n
B
c
B
f
e
}

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
0
2 1
2 3
*
3
exp exp 2
4t



Using Gamma function ( ) dx e x
T k
E E
m
h
T k
x
B
c f
e
B
}

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
0
2 1
2 3
*
3
exp 2
4t
,
the integral part is equal to ( )
2
2 1
2 3
t
T k
B
.
( ) ( )
2
exp 2
4
2 1
2 3
2 3
*
3
t t
T k
T k
E E
m
h
n
B
B
c f
e
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
t
=
T k
E E
exp
h
T k m
B
f c
B
*
e
2 3
2
2
2

( )
(

=
T k
E E
exp N
B
f c
c

where N
c
is a pseudo constant.


Concentration of holes in the valence band of an intrinsic semiconductor:

Let dp

be the number of holes in the energy interval E and E+ dE in the valence band.

( ) | |dE E F ) E ( Z dp = 1 .
) E ( F 1 gives the probability that an electron will be missing from an energy state
E (i.e) a hole is created.

|
|
.
|

\
|

+
=
T k
E E
exp
) E ( F
B
f
1
1
1 1
for T k ) E E (
B f
>>
| |
|
|
.
|

\
|

~
T k
E E
exp ) E ( F
B
f
1
( ) dE E m
h
dE E Z
h
2
1
2 3
*
3
2
4
) (
t
= .
Since E
V
is the energy of the top of the valence band

( ) ( ) dE E E m
h
dE E Z
V h
2 1
2 3
*
3
2
4
) ( =
t
.
The number of holes (per unit volume) in the valence band is given by
3

( ) ( )
}

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
v
E
B
f
V h
dE
T k
E E
E E m
h
P exp 2
4
2 1
2 3
*
3
t

( ) ( )
}

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
v
E
B
V
B
f
h
dE
T k
E
E E
T k
E
m
h
exp exp 2
4
2 1
2 3
*
3
t

To solve this integral; put E
V
E = x
or E = E
V
x; dE = -dx.

( ) ( )
}

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
0
2 1
2 3
*
3
exp exp 2
4
dx
T k
x E
x
T k
E
m
h
P
B
V
B
f
h
t



( )
}

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
0
2 1
2 3
*
3
exp exp 2
4
dx
T k
x
x
T k
E E
m
h
B B
f V
h
t

( ) ( )
2
exp 2
4
2 1
2 3
2 3
*
3
t t
T k
T k
E E
m
h
B
B
f V
h
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

( )
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
t
=
T k
E E
exp
h
T k m
B
V f
B
*
h
2 3
2
2
2
exp N
V
=
( )
(

T k
E E
B
V f

Where
2 3
2
2
2
|
|
.
|

\
|
t
=
h
T k m
N
B
*
h
V
is a pseudo constant.
Fermi level and the intrinsic carrier concentration:

Since n = p for intrinsic semiconductors,
=
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
T k
E E
h
T k m
B
C f
B e
exp
2
2
2 3
2
*
t
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
t
T k
E E
exp
h
T k m
B
f V
B
*
h
2 3
2
2
2

2
3
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

*
e
*
h
B
f V
B
C f
m
m
T k
E E
exp
T k
E E
exp


( )
2
3
2
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
(

*
e
*
h
B
V C f
m
m
T k
E E E
exp
Taking log on both sides and simplifying

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
=
*
e
*
h B V C
f
m
m
log
T k E E
E
4
3
2

If
*
e
*
h
m m = or T=0
o
K
4

loge vs Temp

2
V C
f
E E
E
+
=
Thus the Fermi level is located half way between the conduction and valance bands in
an intrinsic semi conductor.

In Intrinsic semiconductors
i
n p n = =
where
i
n is the intrinsic carrier concentration.
np n
i
=
2


(

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
T k
E E
h
T k m
n
B
C f
B e
i
exp
2
2
2 3
2
*
2
t

|
|
.
|

\
|
t
T k
E E
exp
h
T k m
B
f V
B
*
h
2 3
2
2
2

( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
t
=
T k
E E
exp m m
h
T k
B
C V *
h
*
e
B
2 3
3
2
2
4
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
t
=
T k
E
exp m m
h
T k
B
g
*
h
*
e
B
2 3
3
2
2
4
Where
g V C
E E E = the forbidden energy gap.

( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
t
=
T k
E
exp m m
h
T k
n
B
g
*
h
*
e
B
i
2
2
2
4 3
2 3
2


Conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor:

h e
pe ne o + =
( )
h e i
e n + =
Since
i
n depends on temp as
T
B
k
g
E
e T
2
2 3


and
h e
& depend on temp as
2 3
T
o depends only on
|
|
.
|

\
|

T k
E
exp
B
g
2

( ) T k E exp A
B g i
2 = o
i
i
o
=
1



The slope of log versus 1/T gives
B g
k E 2 and hence
g
E .



T k
E
A
B
g
i
2
log log
'
+ =
5


Variation of Fermi level with temperature and dopant concentration in
an extrinsic (impurity) semiconductor:

In an n-type semiconductor at moderately low temperature all electrons come from
the donor atoms.
(i.e.)
+
~
d
N n
| | ) exp( ) ( 1
T k
E E
N E F N N
B
f d
d d d d

~ =
+

)
T k
E E
exp( N )
T k
E E
exp( )
h
T k m
( n
B
f d
d
B
c f
/ B
*
e

=

t
=
2 3
2
2
2
From this equation one derives the Fermi level of n-type semiconductors as

2
3
2
2
2
2 2
)
h
T k m
(
N
log
T k E E
E
B
*
e
d B c d
f
t
+
+
=
)
N
N
log(
T k E E
E
c
d B c d
f
2 2
+
+
=

At 0
o
K
2
c d
f
E E
E
+
=
(i.e.) The Fermi level lies midway between the donor level E
d
and the bottom of the
conduction band E
c
.
Substituting for E
f
in
( )
(

=
T k
E E
N n
B
f c
c
exp , one gets

T k
E E
d c
B
d c
e N N n
2
) (

=



For a p-type semiconductor;

~
a
N p
) exp( ) (
T k
E E
N E F N N
B
a f
a a a a

= =

(i.e.) )
T k
E E
exp( N )
T k
E E
exp( ) T k m (
B
a f
a
B
f v
B h

t
2
3
2 2
From this equation we derive the Fermi level of a ptype semiconductor as

v
a B a v
f
N
N
log
T k E E
E
2 2

+
=
where

2
3
2 2 ) T k m ( N
B
*
h v
t =
6

At
k T
o
0 =


2
a v
f
E E
E
+
= ;
(i.e.) the Fermi level lies

midway

between

the valence band
and the acceptor level E
a
.
Substituting for E
f
in
( )
(

=
T k
E E
N p
B
f v
v
exp , one gets

T k
E E
B
e N N p
2
) (
a v
v a

=




The plots below show the variation of Fermi level with
temperature and dopant concentration for both n-type and p-type semiconductors.






The above two expressions can be derived in a different way too.
At room temperature for an n-type semiconductor n = N
d
instead of n = N
d
+
.

This leads to
d
B
c f
B
e
*
N )
T k
E E
( e ) T k m ( n =

t =
2
3
2 2 further leading to
)
N
N
( log T k E E
c
d
e B c f
+ = .
In a similar fashion one can show that for a p-type semiconductor p = N
a
leads to the equation
) ( log
v
a
e B v f
N
N
T k E E + =
7

Variation of conductivity of an impure semiconductor:

For an n-type semiconductor, the electron concentration (per unit volume) is given by

)
T k
E E
exp( N N n
B
c d
c d
2

=
and for a p-type semiconductor, the hole concentration is given by
)
T k
E E
exp( N N p
B
a v
v a
2

=
Conductivity
h e
pe ne + = o .

Since
2
3

T &
h e
; o depends on T only as
T k
E E
exp
B
c d
2

and
T k
E E
exp
B
a v
2

.

At 0
o
K conductivity is zero because both electrons and holes are bound to their host atoms.

As temperature increases donor atoms get ionized by letting electrons go to the
conduction band and acceptor atoms get ionized by accepting electrons from the
valence band. As a result conductivity increases. This increase in the concentration
of charge carriers goes on till all donor and acceptor atoms get ionized.
This range of temperature is known as the extrinsic range. During this process
the Fermi level shifts towards the intrinsic level. Over a certain temperature range
the concentration of charge carriers stays almost constant. This temperature range
is the exhaustion range. Though the concentration remains constant conductivity
decreases slightly due to decrease in mobility with temperature. As temperature
is further increased thermal energy is sufficiently large enough to break covalent
bonds of the valence atoms and electron-hole pairs are created. The intrinsic range
starts here.






8

Hall Effect

When a piece of conductor (metal or semiconductor) carrying a current is placed
in a transverse magnetic field, an electric field is produced inside the conductor in a
direction perpendicular to both the current and the magnetic field. This is known as
Hall Effect.
If an electric current flows through a conductor in a magnetic field, the magnetic field exerts
a transverse force on the moving charge carriers which tends to push them to one side of the
conductor. This is most evident in a thin flat conductor as illustrated. A buildup of charge at
the sides of the conductors will balance this magnetic influence, producing a measurable
voltage between the two sides of the conductor. The presence of this measurable transverse
voltage is called the Hall Effect after E. H. Hall who discovered it in 1879.
Note that the direction of the current I in the diagram is that of conventional current, so that
the motion of electrons is in the opposite direction. That further confuses all the "right-hand
rule" manipulations you have to go through to get the direction of the forces.

The Hall voltage is given by



The Hall effect can be used to measure
magnetic fields with a Hall probe.



(i.e.) B e eE
H
u =
If J is the current density J = peu (for holes)

pe
J
= u or
pe
BJ
E
H
=
Hall Effect is described by means of a Hall coefficient R
H
as follows;
JB R E
H H
= ..................
pe JB
E
R
H
H
1
= = for a p-semiconductor.

For n-semiconductor
ne
R
H
1
=
Mobility of charge carriers is given by = o ne
n H
n
e
R
ne
o =
o
= and
p H
p
p
R
pe
o + =
o
=
9


Drift and Diffusion currents:

According to the free electron theory of conductors, electrons are constantly in motion and
suffer collisions with the positive ion cores, which results in a random motion. Across any
cross-section of the specimen the current is zero. Electron motion is due to thermal energy.
When an electric field is applied across the specimen, electrons are accelerated towards the
positive potential but thermal motion interferes with it. The result is a constant drift velocity
in the direction parallel to the applied field.

In a semiconductor both electrons and holes are charge carriers. We can define a drift current
in the presence of an applied field as
d
ne J u = where n is the density of carriers, e is the charge of the carriers and u
d
the
drift velocity. Since mobility
E
d
u
= ; E E ) ne ( J o = = ; where o is the electrical
conductivity.

Drift current densities due to electrons and holes are given by
E ne ) drift ( J
n n
= and E pe ) drift ( J
p p
= .
For an intrinsic semiconductor
i
n p n = =
) ( e n ) drift (
p n i i
+ = o .
The motilities of electrons and holes are not the same.

Diffusion is a process in which particles move from a location of high concentration to a
location of low concentration. A concentration gradient is responsible for diffusion current.
In a semiconductor suppose the concentration An of electrons varies with distance x, the
concentration gradient being
x
) t , x ( n
c
A c
........................ An depends on both distance and
time.

Ficks Law states that the rate at which carriers diffuse is proportional to the density gradient
and the movement is in the direction of negative gradient.

x
n
dt
dn
c
A c
or
x
n
D
n
c
A c
.
Multiplying with charge
for electrons
x
n
eD J
n n
c
A c
=
and for holes
x
p
eD J
p p
c
A c
=
) diffusion ( J ) diffusion ( J ) diffusion ( J
p n
+ = .
D
n
and D
p
are the electron and hole diffusion coefficients.

The total current of charge carriers due to drift and diffusion is given by

10

x
p
eD E pe J
p h p
c
A c
=
and
x
n
eD E ne J
n n p
c
A c
+ =

Einsteins formula relating Drift and Diffusion currents:

Drift and diffusion processes are dependent on the scattering process responsible for
hindering the flow of carriers in a semiconductor.
Einstein showed that parameters describing the two processes, mobility and diffusion
coefficient are directly related.
At equilibrium with no applied electric field, the free electron distribution is uniform and
there is no net current flow. Any tendency to disturb the state of equilibrium, which would
lead to diffusion current, creates an internal field and a drift current balances the diffusion
current. Under equilibrium conditions drift and diffusion currents due to an excess density of
carriers give
x
n
eD E ne
n n
c
A c
= A . The force F on excess carriers restoring equilibrium is given by
x
n eD
neE F
n
n
c
A c

= A = .
This force also depends on thermal energy of excess carriers. By making an analogy between
excess carriers in a semiconductor and gas molecules in a low-pressure gas, the force
corresponding to the pressure gradient is equal to
x
n
T k
B
c
A c
from the kinetic theory of gases.
Upon comparison
x
n
T k
x
n
eD
B n
c
A c
=
c
A c
or
e
T k D
B
n
n
=

(Einstein relation).
Similarly for holes
e
T k
h
D
B h
=

h
n
h
n
D
D

=

Compound semiconductors:

Third group elements like Gallium & Indium can compound with fifth group elements like
Phosphorus and Antimony to give compound semiconductors like GaAs & InP. They have
ZnS structure. Unlike silicon and germanium these are direct band gap semiconductors. Any
recombination of an electron from the conduction band and a hole from the valence band
creates a photon. Hence these compound semiconductors are useful in making
semiconductors junction lasers.
Now a mole of Gallium and a mole of Arsenic give intrinsic GaAs.
1.1 moles of Gallium and a mole of Arsenic give p-GaAs.
1 mole of Gallium and 1.1 moles of Arsenic give n-GaAs.

11

P-N Junction
One of the crucial keys to solid state electronics is the nature of the P-N junction. When p-
type and n-type materials are placed in contact with each other, the junction behaves very
differently than either type of material alone. Specifically, current will flow readily in one
direction (forward biased) but not in the other (reverse biased), creating the basic diode.
This non-reversing behavior arises from the nature of the charge transport process in the two
types of materials.

The open circles on the left side of the junction above represent "holes" or deficiencies of
electrons in the lattice which can act like positive charge carriers. The solid circles on the
right of the junction represent the available electrons from the n-type dopant. Near the
junction, electrons diffuse across to combine with holes, creating a "depletion region". The
energy level sketch above right is a way to visualize the equilibrium condition of the P-N
junction. The upward direction in the diagram represents increasing electron energy.
Depletion Region Details

In the p-type region there are holes from the acceptor impurities and in
the n-type region there are extra electrons.

When a p-n junction is formed, some of the electrons from the n-
region which have reached the conduction band are free to diffuse
across the junction and combine with holes.

Filling a hole makes a negative ion and leaves behind a positive ion on
the n-side. A space charge builds up, creating a depletion region which
inhibits any further electron transfer unless it is helped by putting a
forward bias on the junction.


12

Depletion Region

Bias effect on electrons in depletion zone

Equilibrium of junction
Coulomb force from ions prevents further
migration across the p-n junction. The electrons
which had migrated across from the N to the P
region in the forming of the depletion layer have
now reached equilibrium. Other electrons from the
N region cannot migrate because they are repelled
by the negative ions in the P region and attracted
by the positive ions in the N region.


Reverse bias
An applied voltage with the indicated polarity
further impedes the flow of electrons across the
junction. For conduction in the device, electrons
from the N region must move to the junction and
combine with holes in the P region. A reverse
voltage drives the electrons away from the
junction, preventing conduction.

13


Forward bias
An applied voltage in the forward direction as
indicated assists electrons in overcoming the
coulomb barrier of the space charge in depletion
region. Electrons will flow with very small
resistance in the forward direction.




P-N Junction at Equilibrium
For a p-n junction at equilibrium, the fermi levels match on the two sides of the junctions.
Electrons and holes reach an equilibrium at the junction and form a depletion region. The
upward direction in the diagram represents increasing electron energy. That implies that you
would have to supply energy to get an electron to go up on the diagram, and supply energy to
get a hole to go down.

Forward Biased Conduction
The forward current in a p-n junction when it is forward-biased (illustrated below) involves
electrons from the n-type material moving leftward across the junction and combining with
holes in the p-type material. Electrons can then proceed further leftward by jumping from
hole to hole, so the holes can be said to be moving to the right in this process.
14



That is, the electrons in the n-type material which have been elevated to the conduction band
and which have diffused across the junction find themselves at a higher energy than the holes
in the p-type material. They readily combine with those holes, making possible a continuous
forward current through the junction

Reverse Biased
To reverse-bias the p-n junction, the p side is made more negative, making it "uphill" for
electrons moving across the junction. The conduction direction for electrons in the diagram is
right to left, and the upward direction represents increasing electron energy.
15


Voltage - Ampere Characteristics of a p-n Junction
The volt-ampere characteristic of a p-n junction is a curve between the voltage across the
current through it.


The VI-characteristic curves of an ideal diode and a real diode.
16


Forward Biased P-N
Junction
Forward biasing the p-n
junction drives holes to the
junction from the p-type
material and electrons to the
junction from the n-type
material. At the junction the
electrons and holes combine
so that a continuous current
can be maintained.


Reverse Biased P-N Junction
The application of a reverse
voltage to the p-n junction will
cause a transient current to
flow as both electrons and
holes are pulled away from the
junction. When the potential
formed by the widened
depletion layer equals the
applied voltage, the current
will cease except for the small
thermal current.
The diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor material.
The primary function of the diode is the rectification. When it is forward biased (the higher
potential is connected to the anode lead), it will pass current. When it is reverse biased (the
higher potential is connected to the cathode lead), the current is blocked.