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Shakedown analysis of anisotropic asphalt concrete pavements with clay subgrade

M. Boulbibane, I.F. Collins, D. Weichert, and L. Raad

Abstract: The essence of a shakedown analysis is to determine the critical shakedown load for a given pavement. Pavements operating above this load are predicted to exhibit increased accumulation of plastic strains under long-term repeated loading conditions that eventually lead to incremental collapse (e.g., deep ruts). Those pavements operating at loads below this critical level may exhibit some initial distress, but will eventually settle down to a steady state in which no further mechanical deterioration occurs. Conventional pavement design procedures assume that the pavement deteriorates indefinitely. However, there is now ample field evidence that this is not always true and that steady-state conditions are frequently achieved. The materials in the various layers of the pavement are modeled as elastic-plastic Mohr-Coulomb materials. Anisotropic strength effects are studied as well as the influences of variable temperature, stiffness, strength, and thickness of the asphalt concrete layer. A lower bound approach is used to provide safe estimates of the critical shakedown load. Key words: shakedown theory, multilayered pavements, anisotropy. Rsum : Lessence dune analyse dadaptation est de dterminer la charge critique dadaptation pour un pavage donn. Lon prdit que les pavages oprant au-dessus de cette charge vont prsenter une accumulation croissante de dformations plastiques dans des conditions de chargements rpts long terme et conduire ventuellement un effondrement incrmental (e.g. ornires profondes). Bien que les pavages oprant des charges infrieures au niveau critique puissent prsenter une certaine dtresse initiale, ils vont ventuellement se stabiliser dans un tat stable dans lequel aucune autre dtrioration mcanique ne se produira. Les procdures conventionnelles de conception de pavages supposent que le pavage se dtriore indfiniment. Cependant, il existe maintenant ample vidence que tel nest pas toujours le cas et que des conditions dtat stable sont souvent obtenues. Les matriaux dans les diverses couches du pavage sont modliss comme des matriaux lastiques/plastiques Mohr-Coulomb. Les effets de la rsistance anisotrope sont tudis de mme que les influences des variations de la temprature, de la rigidit, de la rsistance, et de lpaisseur de la couche de bton bitumineux. Une approche de limite infrieure est utilise pour fournir des estimations scuritaires de la charge critique dadaptation. Mots cls : thorie de de ladaptation, pavages multicouches, anisotropie. [Traduit par la Rdaction] Boulbibane et al. 889

Introduction
Soil structures, such as pavement and railroads, are subjected to variable repeated loads, which can vary in magnitude and direction within limits. With cycle-independent material properties, two major categories of behaviour are easily distinguishable: (1) If the plastic deformation stabilizes after a finite number of cycles, the structure is said to have shaken down to a steady deformation state of permanent strain and corresponding residual stress. The response to any further cycling is purely elastic, provided that the loads still remain within the given range. (2) If the plastic deformation does not stabilize, some form of failure will occur. This type of failure is appropriately called failure by nonadaptation. There are two basic

modes of nonadaptation: (i) alternating plasticity, caused by the repeated development of plastic strains for which, the stressstrain curve is hence, ultimately a hysteris loop and the eventual failure is due to low cycle fatigue; and (ii) incremental collapse, caused by the continued accumulation of plastic strains in the same sense at the end of each cycle, leading to progressive increase of permanent displacements and failure of the structure. Such behaviour is frequently referred to as ratchetting. The critical load below which shakedown occurs, and above which failure by fatigue or ratchetting is observed, is called the shakedown load. Estimates of this load can be found by applying the two extremum shakedown principles for elastic-perfectly plastic structures (Lubliner 1990). The lower bound theorem, according to Melan (1936) states that if any equilibrium residual stress distribution can be found,

Received May 31, 1999. Accepted January 10, 2000. Published on the NRC Research Press website on August 30, 2000. M. Boulbibane and I.F. Collins. Department of Engineering Science, School of Engineering, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, New Zealand. D. Weichert. Institute of General Mechanics, RWTH-Aachen, Templergraben 64, 52056, Aachen, Germany. L. Raad. Transportation and Research Centre, University of Alaska-Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK 99775, U.S.A.
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which together with the elastic stress field produced by the passage of a load does not exceed the yield condition at any time, then shakedown will occur. To implement this theorem the elastic stress field induced in the layered pavement must be calculated. This is readily achieved using a finite element procedure or a standard package such as BISAR (De Jong et al. 1979). The problem of finding the shakedown limit load can then be formulated as a mathematical problem. This approach for pavements was pioneered by Sharp and Booker (1984) and extended by Raad et al. (1989), Raad and Weichert (1995), Boulbibane (1995), and Boulbibane and Weichert (1997), who have also incorporated elastic anisotropy and nonassociated flow rules. Hossain and Yu (1996) have also used a finite element program and a linear programming approach to obtain lower bounds to two-dimensional shakedown loads for two-layered systems. This approach works well for twodimensional models where the loaded wheel is replaced by a cylinder of infinite extent in the direction perpendicular to the travel direction. However, the size of the linear programming problem becomes prohibitively large when the more realistic three-dimensional problem is attempted. Collins and Cliffe (1987) employed the dual kinematic theorem, by Koiter (1960), to obtain upper estimates of the shakedown load and showed that in the two-dimensional case the results were identical with those obtained by Sharp and Bookers (1984) lower bound approach; these estimates were, in fact, exact. More importantly however, it was demonstrated that upper bounds could be obtained with relative ease in the much more realistic three-dimensional case, where the load is assumed to be applied over one or more circular areas. This extended the findings of the parallel analysis of Ponter et al. (1985), who calculated the shakedown loads on uniform metal surfaces. The upper bound theorem states that incremental collapse will occur if any kinematically admissible plastic collapse mechanism can be found in which the rate of working of the elastic stress exceeds the rate of plastic energy dissipation. The application of this procedure hence requires us to postulate a failure mechanism or family of failure mechanisms. The elastic and plastic work-rates can then be calculated, again using BISAR or some similar elastic, stress analysis program, and the solution optimized. In the two-dimensional model the only possible such mechanism is sliding over a plane or shearing in the direction of travel. Ponter et al. (1985) and Collins and Cliffe (1987) showed that in fact the optimal solution involves block sliding over a plane and the only optimization necessary is to find the critical depth of this plane that gives the lowest shakedown load estimate. However, in three-dimensions many more types of deformation are possible. Collins et al. (1993a, 1993b) and Collins and Wang (1994) have calculated the shakedown load associated with slip in V-shaped channels in the direction of travel. Such failure would be recognized by the formulation of surface shear cracks on either side of the loaded area. However, the much more common failure mechanism is rut formation in which the load penetrates into the pavement and material is displaced sideways. This has been recently studied by Collins and Boulbibane (1997, 1998a, 1998b), Boulbibane and Collins (1999), and Collins and Boulbibane (1999). A number of researchers have suggested using the bearing capacity theory to model the plastic response of unpaved

roads, see for example the recent paper by Oloo et al. (1997) and the review by Houlsby and Burd (1999). The soil strength parameters, cohesion (c), and the angle of internal friction () of the various pavement layers replace the elastic moduli as the basic design variables. The model is rigid-plastic and the critical failure load can be calculated using limit analysis techniques as in Purushothamaraj et al. (1974), Michalowski and Shi (1995), and Soubra (1999); limit equilibrium methods as in Oloo et al. (1997); or finite elements as in Burd and Frydman (1997). More recently Ramsamooj et al. (1998) have developed a new elastoplastic constitutive model for predicting the stressstrain response of asphalt concrete under cyclic loading. This model presumes homogeneous and isotropic soils. However, there is growing evidence that certain natural soil deposits exhibit anisotropy and nonhomogeneity in shear strength, e.g., Reddy and Srinivasan (1970). Livneh and Shklarsky (1962) studied the influence of anisotropy in the subgrade on the bearing capacity of asphaltic layers and found that disregarding this factor leads to considerable overestimation of the bearing capacity. It is argued that measurement of inherent anisotropy is difficult, but its effects have been inferred from results of laboratory tests performed on specimens cut at different orientations. Some studies of inherent anisotropy have also been made on sand using prepared samples in the laboratory. In particular, anisotropic behaviour has been measured in consolidated-drained shear tests, and it is noted that a slightly higher friction angle occurs when the major principal stress coincides with the direction of sand deposition than when the major principal stress acts perpendicular to the direction of deformation. Arthur and Menzies (1972) have shown that the variation of cohesion with direction due to inherent anisotropy is much more significant than the effect of anisotropy on the angle of friction. Ideally, one may aim at the development of a model involving a large number of state variables and parameters to cover the responses of the inherent anisotropic pavement to the repeated loadings. However, a realistic assessment of the material properties, combined with the desire for computational feasibility, calls for the development of a mathematically simple model that would capture the fundamental behaviour of anisotropic asphalt concrete pavement with sufficient accuracy. The procedure advocated in the present paper allows the repeated nature of the pavement loading and the inherent anisotropy to be modeled and incorporates both the elastic and plastic responses of the pavement to these loads. To achieve this objective, the conventional isotropic Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion has been generalized to include the effect of anisotropy which is caused by the variation of cohesion with direction. It is found that using the lower bound theorem of shakedown theory leads to a linear programming problem. It will be shown in this paper that a numerical implementation of the static approach to shakedown theory enables us to realistically model both the repeated nature of loading and anisotropic soil behaviour. Several examples are given for particular pavement performance models.

Inherent anisotropy in clay layer

One of the major contributions to the development of bearing capacity theories for soils has been the introduction
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884 Fig. 1. Anisotropy with direction.

Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 37, 2000 Fig. 2. Lower bound mesh for pavement analysis.

of anisotropic cohesion models for clays whose strength depends on the shearing direction. Casagrande and Carrillo (1954) seem to have been the first researchers to attempt to model the variation of cohesion with direction at a particular point in a soil mass. Measurements of the fabric of clays have shown that the particles tend to become oriented in the horizontal direction during one-dimensional deposition and subsequent loading. This preferred particle orientation causes an inherent anisotropy, which can lead to changes in soil properties as the direction of the major principal stress varies during shearing. In this model, the variation of cohesion with direction approximates to the curve as shown in Fig. 1 (cf. Lo 1965; Chen 1975). In this figure, ch and cv are the cohesions in the horizontal and vertical directions, respectively. They may be termed the principal cohesions. The ratio of the principal cohesions cv/ch is assumed to be approximately constant at any site. The cohesion on a plane inclined at an angle to the horizontal is [1] c = ch + (cv ch ) sin2

[5] [6]

( )

= 0

( ) = 0

Solving for the critical orientation angle and substituting [2] and [4] into [6] gives the following quadratic anisotropic strength criterion: [7] where A = y x 2 xy tan B = cv ch + 2 xy x tan + y tan C = cv + ch x tan y tan F = A2 + B2 C 2 = 0

Shakedown analysis
In the proposed two-dimensional model, the pavement is discretized into a series of rectangular elements as shown in Fig. 2. Each element has four nodes and the displacement functions are of the second degree and satisfy compatibility conditions. The predictions for coarse mesh, which has 64 elements, are very similar to the predictions for fine mesh, which has 99 elements. Indeed, comparing the results from both meshes shows that shakedown loads are only reduced by 3.5% but lead to an increase in CPU-time. The effect of change in the configuration on the equilibrium equations is neglected by assuming that the hypothesis of the geometrically linear theory holds. A quasi-static analysis is used assuming negligible viscous and inertia effects. The material constituting the pavement is assumed to be elastic-perfectly plastic with the convex yield surface [7] and normal flow rule. In this case, a plane strain finite element analysis is used to determine the elastic and residual stresses at the centre of each element. The application of Melans theorem (static or lower bound approach) reduces mathematically to a minimizing function,
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For a medium with anisotropic cohesion, the conventional isotropic Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion must be modified. A simple extension is [2] = c n tan = ch + (cv ch ) sin2 n tan where is the constant internal friction angle and is the available shear strength on the -plane. The normal and shear stress components developed at any plane inclined at an angle to the horizontal direction are given by the following relations: [3] [4] n = x sin2 + y cos 2 xy sin2 = x sin cos + y cos sin + xy cos 2

At any point in the zone of equilibrium in an anisotropic medium, failure occurs when the following conditions are satisfied (e.g., Reddy and Srinivasan 1970; Yu and Sloan 1994):

Boulbibane et al. Table 1. Asphalt concrete mix properties. Strength parameters Layer temperature (C) 12 4.5 20 32 cac ( 10 ) (kPa) 8.96 7.58 4.48 2.76
3

885 Table 2. Granular cover properties. Strength parameter cg (kPa) g () 34.45 40

ac () 50 35 17 10

Modulus of elasticity ( 106) (kPa) 20.67 6.89 3.44 0.69

Resilient modulus ER = 2000 0.6

Note: ER is a resilient modulus for coarse-grained soils, = 1 + 2 + 3 with 1, 2, 3, as principal stresses (Raad and Figueroa 1980). Poissons ratio is assumed equal to 0.35.

Note: Poissons ratio is assumed equal to 0.35.

Table 3. Subgrade properties. Strength parameters Subgrade layer Soft Medium Stiff cs (kPa) 20.67 41.34 82.68 s () 0 0 0

subject to a series of constraints as suggested by Raad et al. (1989) and stated mathematically as follows: Minimize [8] Q = + ( Sxi ) 2 + ( Syi ) 2
i =1 i =1 NP NP

subject to the following constraints: [9] [10] >0 F(( ij ) 0 + ( ij ) s + ( ij ) a + ij ) 0

Note: Resilient properties for soft, medium, and stiff subgrade are shown in Fig. 3. Poissons ratio is assumed equal to 0.45.

point. The optimizer is stopped when the disturbance of is smaller than the preassigned value.

where ( ij)0, ( ij)s, and ( ij)a are stresses due to body forces, P 0, statically applied forces, f s, and repeated loads, f a , respectively, at the centre of a given element. ij is an arbitrary stress increment applied at the centre of each element, NP is the number of nodal points, and denotes the load multiplier associated with repeated loads f a . Sxi and Syi are resultant forces in the x and y directions at a nodal point with respect to a global set of coordinates (x, y), and F is the yield function with yield occurring when F = 0. In this case, F represents the generalized Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion as given by eq. [7]. Minimizing Q subject to the indicated constraints would yield a maximum value for the load multiplier , while satisfying equilibrium conditions, boundary conditions, and yield conditions in a weak sense. Because Q is quadratic with nonlinear constraints, quadratic optimization techniques are not feasible. Since we wish to formulate the lower bound theorem as a linear programming problem, it is necessary to approximate eq. [7] by a yield function that is piece-wise linear in the unknown stress variables. The linearized yield surface that must lie inside the generalized Mohr-Coulomb yield surface in stress space is obtained following the original work done by Hooke and Jeeves (1961), so that the solution is a rigorous lower bound. The initial repeated stresses are multiplied by a load factor st to yield the most critical element in the mesh. This procedure will shift the search in the vicinity of the shakedown load. The optimizer, during an exploratory sequence, will allow one disturbance of the variable in the direction of the decreasing objective function and several disturbances, in the same direction, of the stress variables ij as long as the objective function decreases. At the end of this sequence a linear extrapolation is carried out upon all of the variables and a new exploratory sequence is reinitiated about the successful base point. An exploratory sequence is rated a failure when the objective function has decreased by a smaller amount than a preassigned value. In this case, the disturbances are reduced by a fixed factor and a new exploratory sequence is reinitiated about the last base

Conditions and materials characterization

The proposed numerical approach was used to investigate the influence of the subgrades elastic-plastic characteristics on the shakedown behaviour of pavement structures. The pavement considered consists of an asphalt concrete surface layer and a granular cover layer overlying a clay subgrade. The asphalt concrete mix properties considered in the analysis correspond to mix M27, as designed by Salam (1971). The mix aggregates consisted of 63.5% fine aggregate and 36.5% coarse aggregate of crushed Watsonville granite. A 7% asphalt cement with a 60 to 70 penetration grade was used. The average air void content was 0.82% and the average specific gravity was 2.53. The asphalt concrete elastic modulus used is assumed to be temperature dependent. In addition, its friction and cohesion, as defined by the MohrCoulomb yield criterion, are also temperature dependent. The stiffness, cohesion, and angle of friction were obtained from Salams thesis, and the rates of loading used were in the range of 0.10 s to 0.50 s. A summary of asphalt concrete properties for different temperatures used in this study is presented in Table 1. Granular materials, which could consist of base course and subbase in some cases, were modeled using a MohrCoulomb model. This is an elastic-plastic model in which granular materials are assumed to behave elastically for low stress levels. When the stress reaches a certain yield stress, the material will subsequently behave as an elastic-plastic material. Other material and layer characteristics used in the analysis include the resilient modulus, Poissons ratio, internal angle of friction, and cohesion and are listed in Table 2. The subgrade was assumed to exhibit stress-dependent resilient properties. Typical relations between the deviator stress and resilient modulus as proposed by Figueroa (1979) (defined as the ratio of repeated stress to recoverable or resilient strain) are shown in Fig 3. When analyzing clays, the Poissons ratio is usually chosen to be in the range of 0.4 to
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886 Fig. 3. Resilient properties of subgrade soils (Figueroa 1979).

Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 37, 2000 Fig. 4. Variation of shakedown load against thickness of asphalt concrete layer for (a) soft, (b) medium, and (c) stiff subgrade layers.

0.5. Although stiffer clays have a somewhat lower Poissons ratio, the effect on the predicted response of the pavement under traffic loading is not significant. A 0.45 value is chosen for the analysis (see Table 3).

Application
The numerical approach is used to investigate the influence of a certain number of variables and design parameters on the shakedown behaviour of pavement structures. The effects of variable temperature and thickness of the asphalt concrete layer on the shakedown capacity are illustrated. Moreover, shakedown predictions for subgrades with different anisotropic inherent cohesion and resilient properties are compared.

Influence of temperature and thickness of asphalt concrete layer

An increase or decrease in the asphalt concrete layers temperature induces additional stresses that could influence the mechanical properties of this layer. The results obtained herein are plotted as the limit shakedown load against the thickness of asphalt concrete layer for the case where the cohesion ratio cv/ch is 1.25. It is found that an increase in the asphalt concrete layers temperature slightly reduces the shakedown capacity of the pavement. Such behaviour reflects the dominant effect of the asphalt concrete tempera-

ture, which would reduce the stiffness and strength of the asphalt concrete layer and would, therefore, result in a larger transfer of applied load to the subgrade as shown in Figs. 4(a), (b) and (c).
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Boulbibane et al. Fig. 5. Shakedown limits loads for anisotopic, soft subgrade layer for asphalt concrete layer temperatures of (a) 12C, (b) 4.5C, (c) 20C, and (d) 32C.

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Influence of anisotropy
Figure 5 illustrates the interrelationship between the limit shakedown load and the thickness of the asphalt concrete layer for various values of cv/ch. The results obtained for cv/ch are those for an isotropic subgrade. It is found that these results are in agreement with the results obtained by Raad and Weichert (1995) for a soft subgrade layer and for different temperatures of the asphalt concrete layer. Moreover, the limit shakedown load increases as the value of cv/ch increases, but decreases as the temperature of the asphalt concrete layer increases.

Conclusions
A model has been proposed for the prediction of the effect of inherent anisotropic cohesion on the long-term behaviour of multilayered pavements. This model makes use of the lower bound theorem of shakedown and allows for the variation of soil strength with direction. To develop a numerical formulation for an anisotropic soil, the conventional isotropic Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion has been generalized to include the variation of cohesion with direction and the

stress-dependent resilient properties of subgrade layers in pavement structures. The method was used to investigate the influence of subgrade properties on the shakedown behaviour of two-layer pavement systems consisting of an asphalt concrete layer and a granular base over a clay subgrade. It enables us to estimate the shakedown load for pavements under repeated loadings and shows how variables such as temperature and thickness of asphalt concrete layer affect the shakedown behaviour of pavements founded on soft, medium, and stiff subgrades. The use of the model is illustrated by considering several examples. Results of analyses indicate that shakedown criterion should be considered in the design and evaluation of pavement structures. A pavement designed to resist a number of load applications in fatigue would exhibit an increased accumulation of plastic strains if the applied load exceeds the shakedown capacity, but the pavement would reach a steady-state response if the applied load were smaller than the shakedown capacity. One of the most forceful arguments for the adoption of the shakedown analysis method for pavements is the fact that it provides a rational basis for studying the consequences of variations in the design variables such as temperature and plastic anisotropy, as
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888

Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 37, 2000 Figueroa, J.L. 1979. Resilient based flexible pavement design procedure for secondary roads. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Hooke, R., and Jeeves, T.A. 1961. Direct search solution of numerical and statical problems. Journal of the Association for Computing Machinery, 8: 212229. Hossain, M.Z., and Yu, H.S. 1996. Shakedown analysis of multilayer pavements using finite element and linear programming. Proceedings of the 7th Australia New Zealand Conference on Geomechanics, Adelaide. Edited by M.B. Jaksa, W.S. Kaggwa and D.A. Cameron. Institute of Engineers, Canberra, Australia, pp. 512520. Houlsby, G.T., and Burd, H.J. 1999. Understanding the behaviour of unpaved roads on soft clay. Proceedings of the 12th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering Geotechnical Engineering for Transportation Infrastructure, Amsterdam, 710 June. Edited by H.B.J. Barends, J. Lindenburg, H.J. Luger, L. de Quelerij, and A. Verruijt, Vol. 1, pp. 3142. Koiter, W.T. 1960. General theorems for elastic-plastic solids. In Progress in solid mechanics. Edited by I.N. Sneddon and R. Hill. North Holland, Amsterdam, pp. 165221. Livneh, M., and Shklarsky, E. 1962. The bearing capacity of asphaltic concrete carpets surfacing. Proceedings of the International Conference on the Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements, Ann Arbor, Mich., pp. 345353. Lo, K.Y. 1965. Stability of slopes in anisotropic soils. Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, ASCE, 91: 85106. Lubliner, J. 1990. Plasticity theory. Macmillan, New York. Melan, E. 1936. Theorie statisch unbestimmter systeme aus idealplastischen baustoff. Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien, 1: 145195. Michalowski, R.L., and Shi, L. 1995. Bearing capacity of footings over two-layer foundation soils. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, 121: 421428. Oloo, S.Y., Fredlund, D.G., and Gan, J.K.M. 1997. Bearing capacity of unpaved roads. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 34: 398 407. Ponter, A.R., Hearle, A.D., and Johnson, K.L. 1985. Application of the kinematic shakedown theorem to rolling and sliding contact points. Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids, 33: 339 362. Purushothamaraj, P., Ramiah, B.K., and Venkatakrishna Rao, K.N. 1974. Bearing capacity of strip footings in two layered cohesivefriction soils. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 11: 3245. Raad, L., and Figueroa, J. 1980. Load response of transportation support systems. Journal of Transportation Engineering, ASCE, 106(TE1): 111128. Raad, L., and Weichert, D. 1995. Stability of pavement structures under long term repeated loading. Inelastic behaviour of structures under variables loads. Edited by Z. Mroz, D. Weichert, and S. Dorosz, Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 473496. Raad, L., Weichert, D., and Haidar, A. 1989. Shakedown and fatigue of pavements with granular bases. Transportation Research Record No. 1227, pp. 159172. Ramsamooj, P.E., Ramadan, J., and Lin, G.S. 1998. Model prediction of rutting in asphalt concrete. Journal of Transportation Engineering, ASCE, 124: 448456. Reddy, A.S., and Srinivasan, R.J. 1970. Bearing capacity of footings on anisotropic soils. Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, ASCE, 96: 19671986. Salam, Y.M. 1971. Characterization of deformation and fracture of asphalt concrete. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.
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illustrated here. In addition, improved versions of the proposed numerical model would provide a basis for analyzing pavements under more general and complex loading and environmental conditions. Moreover, experimental verification of numerical predictions is needed to calibrate the proposed models for practical applications.

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Arthur, J.R.F., and Menzies, B.K. 1972. Inherent anisotropy in a sand. Gotechnique, 22: 115128. Boulbibane, M. 1995. Application de la thorie dadaptation aux milieux lastoplastiques non standards : cas des gomatriaux. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Sciences and Technology of Lille, France. Boulbibane, M., and Collins, I.F. 1999. Geotechnical models of failure in unbound pavements. Proceedings of the 8th Australia New Zealand Conference on Geomechanics, Hobart. Edited by N. Vitharana and R. Colman, Vol. 2, pp. 733738. Boulbibane, M., and Weichert, D. 1997. Application of shakedown theory to soils with non associated flow rules. Mechanics Research Communications, 24: 516519. Burd, H.J., and Frydman, S. 1997. Bearing capacity of plane-strain footing on layered soils. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 34: 241253. Casagrande, A., and Carrillo, N. 1954. Shear failure of anisotropic materials. Journal of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers, Contrib. Soil Mech., pp. 19411953. Chen, W.F. 1975. Limit analysis and soil plasticity. Elsevier, Amsterdam. Collins, I.F., and Boulbibane, M. 1997. Pavements as structures subjected to repeated loadings. In The mechanics of structures and materials. Edited by R.H. Grzebieter, R. Al-Mahaidi and J.L. Wilson. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 511516. Collins, I.F., and Boulbibane, M. 1998a. The application of shakedown theory to pavement design. Metals and Materials, 4: 832 837. Collins, I.F., and Boulbibane, M. 1998b. Shakedown analysis and design of unbound pavements. Proceeding of Roading Geotechnics 98, The Institution of Professional Engineers, Auckland, Vol. 24, pp. 5964. Collins, I.F., and Boulbibane, M. 2000. A geomechanical analysis of unbound pavements based upon shakedown theory. Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 126: 5059. Collins, I.F., and Cliffe, P.F. 1987. Shakedown in frictional materials under moving surface loads. International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, 11: 409420. Collins, I.F., and Wang, A.P. 1994. Shakedown theory and pavement design. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Computer Methods and Advances in Geomechanics, Morgantown, W. Va., U.S.A. Edited by H.H. Siriwardane and M.M. Zaman. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 14651470. Collins, I.F., Wang, A.P., and Saunders, L.R. 1993a. Shakedown in layered pavements under moving surface loads. International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, 17: 165174. Collins, I.F., Wang, A.P., and Saunders, L.R. 1993b. Shakedown theory and the design of unbound pavements. Road and Transport Research, 2: 2938. De Jong, D.L., Peutz, M.G.F., and Korswagen, A.R. 1979. Computer program Bisar, layered systems under normal and tangential surface loads. Koninklijke/Shell-laboratorium, Amsterdam.

Boulbibane et al. Sharp, R.W., and Booker, J.R. 1984. Shakedown of pavements under moving surface loads. Journal of Transportation Engineering, ASCE, 110: 114. Soubra, A.H. 1999. Upper bound solutions for bearing capacity of foundations. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 125: 5968.

889 Yu, H.S., and Sloan, S.W. 1994. Limit analysis of anisotropic soils using finite elements and linear programming. Mechanics Research Communications, 21: 545554.

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