Normal Shock Waves

Where there are supersonic ows, there are usually also shock waves. A fundamental type of shock wave is the normal shock wave the shock wave normal to the ow direction. We will examine that type of shock wave in this chapter.

Basic Relations

Lets consider a rectangular piece of air (the system) around a normal shock wave, as is shown in gure 1. To the left of this shock wave are the initial properties of the ow (denoted by the subscript 1). To the right are the conditions behind the wave.

Figure 1: A normal shock wave. We can already note a few things about the ow. It is a steady ow (the properties stay constant in time). It is also adiabatic, since no heat is added. No viscous eects are present between the system and its boundaries. Finally, there are no body forces. Now what can we derive? Using the continuity equation, we can nd that the mass ow that enters the system on the left is 1 u1 A1 , with u the velocity of the ow in x-direction. The mass ow that leaves the system on the right is 2 u2 A2 . However, since the system is rectangular, we have A1 = A2 . So we nd that 1 u 1 = 2 u 2 . (1.1) We can also use the momentum equation. The momentum entering the system every second is given by (1 u1 A1 )u1 . The momentum ow leaving the system is identically (2 u2 A2 )u2 . The net force acting on the system is given by p1 A1 p2 A2 . Combining everything, we can nd that p 1 + 1 u 2 = p 2 + 2 u 2 . 1 2 (1.2)

Finally lets look at the energy. The energy entering the system every second is (1 u1 A1 ) e1 + u2 /2 . 1 Identically, the energy leaving the system is (2 u2 A2 ) e2 + u2 /2 . No heat is added to the system (the 2 ow is adiabatic). There is work done on the system though. The amount of work done every second is p1 A1 u1 p2 A2 u2 . Once more, we can combine everything to get u2 u2 1 = h2 + 2 . (1.3) 2 2 This equation states that the total enthalpy is the same on both sides of the shock wave. Since the shock wave was adiabatic, we actually already knew that. So this was no surprising result. h1 + The three equations we have just derived hold for all one-dimensional, steady, adiabatic, inviscid ows. But lets take a closer look at them. Lets suppose that all upstream conditions 1 , u1 , p1 , h1 and T1 are known. We cant solve for all the downstream conditions just yet. We have only three equations, while we have four unknowns. We need a few more equations. These equations are h = cp T, 1 (1.4)

p = RT.

(1.5)

That wasnt much new, was it? We now have 5 unknowns and 5 equations. So we can solve everything.

The Speed of Sound

A special kind of normal shock wave is a sound wave. In fact, it is an innitesimally weak normal shock wave. Because of this, dissipative phenomena (like viscosity and thermal conduction) can be neglected, making it an isentropic ow. At what velocity does this shock wave travel? Lets call this velocity the speed of sound a. Note that a = u1 . Because the shock wave is very weak, we can also state that p2 = p1 + dp, 2 = 1 + d and a2 = a1 + da. If we combine these facts with the three equations we derived in the previous paragraph, we eventually nd that p dp = . (2.1) a2 = d s The last part in the above equation is to indicate that the changes in p and occur isentropically. For isentropic processes we have p p . (2.2) = p = c s This results in a= p = RT , (2.3)

where we used the equation of state in the last part. So apparently, for a given medium, the speed of sound only depends on the temperature. Do you still remember the compressibility we introduced in the previous chapter? From the equation d = dp, we can also derive that 1 a= . (2.4) s Note that we have used the isentropic compressibility because the process is isentropic. So we see that the lower the compressibility of a substance, the faster sound travels in it.

The Mach Number

M=

u . (3.1) a A lot of properties can be derived from the Mach number. Lets recall the total temperature T0 . This can be found using u2 cp T0 = cp T + . (3.2) 2 From this we can derive that T0 1 2 =1+ M . (3.3) T 2 Using the isentropic ow relations, we can also nd that p0 = p 1 2 1+ M 2
1

The Mach number M is dened as

(3.4)

0 = From equation (3.2) we can also derive that

1+

1 2 M 2

1 1

(3.5)

a2 u2 a2 0 + = = constant. 1 2 1

(3.6)

Sonic Conditions

When you slow an airow down adiabatically to u = 0 (and thus M = 0) you nd the total temperature Tt , total pressure pt , total density t , and so on. Similarly, we can change the velocity of a ow adiabatically such that M = 1. The corresponding temperature at sonic conditions is denoted by T . The characteristic speed of sound a can now be found using a = RT . However, we can also determine that a2 u2 a2 a2 + 1 2 + = + = a = constant. (4.1) 1 2 1 2 2 ( 1) Just like we can examine the speed of sound at sonic conditions, we can also look at the temperature T , pressure p and density at such conditions. By inserting M = 1 in equations (3.3) to (3.5) we nd that 1 +1 p0 + 1 1 0 + 1 1 T0 = , = and = . (4.2) T 2 p 2 2 Finally we can dene the characteristic Mach number M as M = u . a (4.3)

We can nd that M and M are related, according to M2 = 2M 2 ( + 1) ( 1) M 2 M 2 = ( + 1) M 2 . 2 + ( 1) M 2 (4.4)

The parameters M and M are quite similar. If one is bigger than 1, so is the other, and vice verse.

Normal Shock Wave Relations

There are several other relations that hold for normal shock waves. We will discuss some of them. We start with the Prandtl relation, stating that a2 = u1 u2 From this follows that
2 M2 =

1 = M1 M2 .

(5.1)

2 2 + ( 1) M1 . 2 2M1 ( 1)

(5.2)

This is an important relation. If M1 > 1 we have M2 < 1. If M1 = 1, then also M2 = 1. (If this is the case we are dealing with an innitely weak shock wave, called a Mach wave.) However, if M1 < 1 it would seem that M2 > 1. But this seems rather odd. Suddenly a subsonic ow becomes supersonic! A more detailed look would show that in this case also the entropy s would decrease. But the second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy can only increase. What can we conclude from this? It means that in subsonic ows no shock waves can appear. Shock waves are thus only present in supersonic ows. Now we know how to nd M2 . But can we also nd the other properties behind the shock wave? It turns out that we can, using 3

2 2 u1 ( + 1) M1 = = 2, 1 u2 2 + ( 1) M1

(5.3) (5.4)
2 2 + ( 1) M1 2 ( + 1) M1

p2 2 2 =1+ M1 1 , p1 +1 h2 p 2 1 T2 = = = T1 h1 p 1 2 1+ 2 2 M1 1 +1 .

(5.5)

It would also be interesting to know how the total temperature Tt and the total pressure pt change across the shock wave. Since a shockwave is an adiabatic process we know that h1 = h2 and thus also Tt,1 = Tt,2 . Finally, using the relation for entropy we can nd that
s2 s1 pt,2 = e R . pt,1

(5.6)

So what can we derive from all the above equations? When passing through a shock wave, the properties of the ow change drastically. The pressure, temperature and density increase, while the total pressure and the Mach number decrease. The total temperature and the enthalpy stay constant.

Measuring the Velocity

When an aircraft is ying, it would be nice to know how fast it is going. To nd this out, a Pitot tube is used, measuring the total pressure pt . We also assume that the static pressure p is known. To nd the velocity during a subsonic ight, we can simply use the relation pt = p 1 2 1+ M 2
1

(6.1)

Solving for M 2 and using u2 = M 2 a2 we nd that 2a2 u = 1

2

pt p

1 .

(6.2)

So to nd the velocity, we also need to know the speed of sound. But if we know that, its easy to nd the velocity. To nd the velocity during a supersonic ight is a bit more dicult, since there is a shock wave. This time the Pitot tube measures the total pressure behind the shock wave pt,2 . The static pressure that was known is now called p1 . This time we need to use the relation pt,2 pt,2 p2 = = p1 p2 p 1
2 ( + 1) M1 2 4M1 2 ( 1) 2
1

2 (1 ) + 2M1 . +1

(6.3)

This equation is called the Rayleigh Pitot tube formula. In its derivation we used the normal shock wave relations for the ratio p2 /p1 . We used the relation for total pressure in an isentropic ow for the ratio pt,2 /p2 . From this equation the Mach number can be solved. Then only the speed of sound is still needed to nd the ight velocity u.