CHAPTER 1.

THE A PPLICATION OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES

University of Southern Queensland, 2008

ENG8803 Mechanics and Technology of Fibre Composites

CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1. ....................................................................................................................... 0 contents ................................................................................................................................. 1 1.0 1.1 1.1.1. 1.1.2. 1.2 1.2.1. 1.2.2. 1.2.3. 1.2.4. 1.2.5. 1.2.6. 1.3 1.4 1.4.1. 1.4.2. 1.4.3. 1.4.4. 1.4.5. 1.4.6. 1.5 1.6 1.7 introduction ................................................................................................... 2 Basic Material Development....................................................................... 2 Application Development................................................................................... 3 Observations and Historical Lessons.................................................................. 6 The Migration of Composites into Civil Engineering. ........................... 7 The Potential for Application ............................................................................ 7 Early Applications of Composites in Civil Engineering...................................... 8 The International Push for Composites in Infrastructure..................................... 9 Demonstration Structures for the Viability of Composites .................................. 9 Fibre Composite Buildings............................................................................... 12 Marine Fender Pilings..................................................................................... 13 Developments in Australia........................................................................ 14 issues for Further Integration of Composites in Civil Engineering. .. 18 Cost ................................................................................................................ 18 Structural Performance .................................................................................... 19 Design Data and Material Property Information ............................................. 20 Durability ....................................................................................................... 21 Design Standards and Codes ........................................................................... 22 Education........................................................................................................ 23 Conclusions.................................................................................................. 23 Example Questions .................................................................................... 25 references ..................................................................................................... 26

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1.0

INTRODUCTION

This chapter discusses the status of fibre composites as a structural material. A brief history of composite materials is presented and the implications of this history on the current industry are discussed. The chapter then moves focus to examine the migration of composites into civil and structural engineering applications. The chapter concludes with a brief overview of recent applications, around the world and in Australia, where composites have been used as primary structural materials in civil engineering projects.

1.1

BASIC MATERIAL DEVELOPMENT

The basics of composite materials and their usage are, in truth, not a new concept. Nature provides a number of examples of composite materials such as wood (fibrous cellulose in a lignin matrix) and mammalian bone (collagen fibrils in a protein-calcium phosphate matrix). The structural benefits of reinforced composites were also identified early in human history in applications such as straw-reinforced clay bricks. However, composite materials, as considered in this study book, are a relatively young structural technology. The materials are often referred to as synthetic composites due to their utilisation of synthetically fabricated fibres and polymers. These materials have only existed for around sixty years and thus are significantly younger materials than steel and concrete. The cornerstone to this new technology was the development of synthetic polymers. These materials only began their history in the late 1800's and it was not until 1899 that the first patent was taken out on a synthetic polymer, phenol-formaldehyde resin. Over the next thirty years a number of chemically similar resins such as melamineformaldehyde and urea-formaldehyde resins were also developed. The major drawback with these early products was the heat and pressure required to cure these polymers and the associated high tooling cost for such operations. These early materials were also brittle with little tensile strength. It was found that improved properties could be obtained by combining them with a fibre type reinforcement. Early reinforcements included linen cloth, asbestos and wood pulp. The most common of these materials was Bakelite (phenol-formaldehyde resin) with linen fibre in electrical applications. These applications were still limited in size and quantity though, due to the resin cure characteristics and limitations of the reinforcement. The successful development of solutions to these two issues were the pivotal breakthroughs which led to the emergence of todays composites industry [Reinhart, 1998]. The solution to reinforcement problems came in 1941 when Owens-Corning released the first commercial run of woven glass cloth. While glass fibres had been in use since the early seventeenth century when Venetians used it to create special gowns, these early fibres were heavy and full of shot [Vaughan, 1998]. In 1932, Dale Kleist, a research assistant with Owens-Illinois Glass Company, accidentally struck a stream of molten
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glass with a jet of compressed air and stumbled upon a method of producing fine glass fibers [Owens Corning, 1998(a)]. These fibres were found to be of high quality and free of traditional defects. Subsequent research and refinement of this process led to commercial production of high quality glass fibres. Initial production centered on glass wool products for insulation, however successful experiments with glass wool on textile machinery eventually led to the development of glass fibre textiles. With the development of new heat cleaning and treatment technology in 1941, glass fibre cloth became available as a reinforcement for plastics [Owens Corning, 1998(b)]. The solution to the second key materials issue came in the early 1940's with the commercial release of room-temperature cure polyester resin. Through the 1930's a number of chemical companies including Celanese, DuPont and American Cyanamid had targeted the development of practical thermosetting resins which would cure at room temperature. In 1936, C. Ellis, a scientist with DuPont, patented the first unsaturated polyester resin. This was followed in 1938 by P.Castan who patented the first epoxy resin system. In 1942 unsaturated polyester resin was released commercially ushering in a new age in ambient temperature processing. Further flexibility was gained in 1946 when Ciba introduced the first Araldite epoxy resin systems. [Rosato, 1982] The advent of these two technologies was the turning point for composite materials development. They opened the door to high performance materials which could be manufactured with economical production techniques in a wide array of applications. It has been noted that the early resin systems had inconsistent cure time, if they bothered to cure at all [McNally, 1996]. However the advantages of these new materials continued to push forward development at a rapid rate. Materials development has continued to underpin composites development. Improvements in resin curing technologies with new peroxides (cumene hydroperoxide, 1944; benzoyl peroxide, 1947; methy ethyl ketone peroxide, 1949), improved resin formulations (cycloaliphatic epoxies, 1958; vinyl ester resins, 1965), improvements in fibre/matrix adhesion (vinyl silicone coupling agent, 1944; Volan chrome complex, 1951; allylsilane glass size, 1951), and the development of new types of fibres (rayon based carbon fibre,1958; PAN based carbon fibre, 1961; aramid fibres 1971) have all continued to push the application boundaries of these materials. 1.1.1.
1.1.1.1.

APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT
Military Developments

In their short life, composite materials have demonstrated major progress in both quality and performance. The primary reason for this rapid development can be directly attributed to the US military machine. While not having been the largest consumer of these materials in terms of production volume, military development has none the less been the major driving force behind material and production development for composites [Ballinger, 1992]. Early experiments in fibre reinforcing of plastics began in World War II with US military research into aircraft components such as radomes. In 1942 the US Army Air Force partnered with Owens Corning to develop low-pressure, plastic laminates for use in structural aircraft parts [Owens Corning, 1998(b)]. In 1943, the Vultee BT-15
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airplane, with a fibre composite sandwich structure fuselage, was flown for the first time. This is regarded as the first major fibre composite structural component of an aeroplane to be successfully developed and flight tested [Rosato, 1982]. This is less than twelve months, from the initial investigations into the viability of composites, to the successful flight testing of a major structural component. The late 40's and early 50's saw the escalation of the cold war between the US and the Soviet Union. Driven by the threat of global communism huge amounts of money were invested in US military hardware. The emphasis was on having the best performance available. With the advent of newer, faster, more manoeuvrable aircraft came new demands on the structural materials. The cold war also saw the development of a new field in aerospace applications with ballistic missiles and other rocketry. New materials were needed which gave high strength and stiffness, low weight, fatigue strength, impact protection, performance in extreme environments and electromagnetic/radar transparency. Fibre reinforced plastics offered the promise of such performance. Vast amounts of US government money were invested in the development of fibres, resins, manufacturing techniques and design. In todays economic climates, such expenditure may seem unwarranted but according to Ballinger [1992], since the value of weight reduction was often over $100,000 per pound this research and the expenditure of considerable money was justified. Needless to say, with such vast resources available, composite materials made rapid advances in a relatively short period of time. The major point to observe though, is that development was almost always focused toward a specific product. These products have been developed through an iterative process that combined extensive analysis and testing in a design, build, test, redesign and retest program that eventually produced a product that met the agreed upon criteria [Ballinger, 1992]. This has led to a proliferation of specialised resins and fibres. The base components of these materials were frequently expensive and once the cost of developing the material for a specific product was added on, the final cost of the resulting product was extremely high. The other point that needs to be noted is that the applications for which composites were utilised were in general not structural; that is they were not used as primary load bearing structures. Ballinger [1992] noted that they are not load bearing or they do not carry significant loads over long periods of time. He noted that this was typified by the fact composites were generally used as thin skin laminates in applications such as aircraft control surfaces and protective casings. The primary requirement of aerospace applications was the reduction of weight while maintaining required structural performance.
1.1.1.2. Developments in Marine Applications

The marine market also saw the potential of lightweight composite materials offering resistance to rot and corrosion. Over a period of around twenty five years from 1942 to 1967, composite materials revolutionised the marine industry. For thousands of years boats had been made out of wood, however the advent of affordable, low maintenance boats fabricated from composite materials has caused a change that has forced people to rethink just about everything they know about building boats.

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In 1942, Basons Industries moulded the first fibreglass boat. Unfortunately, as no release agents were used, all attempts to remove the boat from the mould failed [Rosato, 1982]. In 1944 though, Owens Corning successfully developed an FRP boat hull based on their Fiberglas fabric. In 1946 the first production boat was fabricated by Gar Wood, using a vacuum assisted resin infusion method. This first boat possessed a resin to glass ratio of 45%. Over 2000 of the 17ft Gar Form boats were produced over the next 4 years [McNally, 1996]. The US Navy took on its first fibreglass-polyester boats in 1948; a 28ft launch produced by the Winner Manufacturing Company. By 1968, the Navy had over 2000 such boats in use [Rosato,1982]. Recent years have seen more change in the marine industry due to composite materials. From the original Hobie Cat catamarans of the early 1970's, personal water craft have developed into a major worldwide industry on the back of composite materials technology. Recent times have also seen the development of mega-yachts which are often over 100 feet in length. Composite materials have enabled the development of these vessels at reasonable cost and in much reduced time frames. The marine industry has been a major driver of production technology in the composites world. Technologies such as resin infusion, pre-impregnated cloth and depositor guns were pioneered in marine applications. Over recent years the small watercraft industry has also pushed the technology of closed mould processing. Some segments of the industry have also rapidly embraced new materials technology to gain performance advantages in weight and stability. Materials such as carbon and aramid fibres and more expensive vinylester and epoxy resins are widely used in a range of water craft. It should be noted though, that such usage does not automatically imply a corresponding level of design and engineering sophistication. One of the key points to note about the development of composites in the marine industry is that the level of engineering applied, in the development of major structures, is significantly different to that which would be expected in a civil engineering environment. Dodkins [1998] has noted that for many years in the marine sector an unsophisticated approach to design and manufacture of composites has prevailed. In informal discussions with boat builders it is not uncommon to hear stories of million dollar vessels being designed and constructed with no materials testing for either design properties or structure validation. It is also not uncommon to find laminate designs which fail to utilise the material placed within the laminate. For example, in some instances high cost materials such as carbon and aramid reinforcement are placed at the neutral axis of a laminate which is subjected to flexure loading, resulting in significantly increased costs with little to no benefit in strength and stiffness.
1.1.1.3. Developments in Automotive Applications

While aerospace and military markets dominated the early history of composites there were a number of other applications and markets which saw the potential of the materials and began researching composites. In 1941, Henry Ford saw the potential for composite laminates in automobiles. In a demonstration he hit a composite car body with an axe to demonstrate its feasibility as a material in cars [Lubin, 1982]. This potential was also seen by General Motors and in

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1953 production was started on the first all FRP car body; the Chevrolet Corvette (see Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1 - 1953 Chevrolet Corvette

The automotive industry has also been a major factor in advancing production technology. With large production runs of a limited number of components, the automotive industry has invested significant resources into the development of mass production technologies. Many of the materials used in automotive structures would be regarded as low-tech materials; polyester resins, short discontinuous glass fibres and random fibre mats. However, there has been a need to develop efficient production methods to make these materials economically viable. Technologies such as press moulding and resin transfer moulding have been widely used in these fields to create high volume, rapid turn-around production. Surface finish technology has also been a major issue with much work being undertaken to develop consistent Class-A automotive finishes. The main point to note with automotive applications is the production environment. In the automotive industry the scenario is one of mass production. Due to the high number of parts, setup costs can be spread across large production runs resulting in a low cost per unit. In general, this situation does not exist in civil engineering projects. Most civil components are by nature one-off and thus high initial setup cost cannot be absorbed through production volume. Surface finish is also not a significant issue in a civil engineering environment.

1.1.2.

OBSERVATIONS AND HISTORICAL LESSONS

One of the important points to note in the historical development of composite materials is that the materials themselves are relatively new, with only around 55 years having elapsed since the initial creation of the constituent materials. Despite a broad array of application since their inception, the total base of knowledge for these materials is significantly less than for traditional structural materials such as steel and concrete. In seeking to apply these materials within the civil engineering world, this point is amplified due to the nature of applications where these materials have traditionally been applied. Most traditional applications for composites have been developed under significantly different design parameters than those applicable in civil structures. While the design solutions and knowledge developed within such programs may provide ideal solutions for the given scenario, much of the knowledge gained is not directly applicable to civil engineering programs.

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Knowledge for composites in civil engineering structures must be developed from a foundation consistent with the objectives of this environment. In broad terms this will mean that issues such as cost become paramount while other criteria such as weight reduction and appearance become secondary.

1.2

THE MIGRATION OF COMPOSITES INTO CIVIL ENGINEERING.

THE POTENTIAL FOR APPLICATION

1.2.1.

Over the past decade there has been an increasing international push to migrate composite material technology into mainstream civil engineering. Before examining some of the details of this movement it is important to firstly establish why there exists such an interest in these materials. For many years, composites were regarded as the highly specialised domain of aircraft and spacecraft designers. However, Goldsworthy [1995] has argued that composites should be regarded as just another building material - only better. He also argued that sufficient work and testing has been done at this point to really alleviate any doubts that these are structurally capable materials .... now it should be just a question of proper design to maximise their advantages. However, structural capacity alone is not likely to provide sufficient impetus to integrate these materials into everyday civil engineering structures. Several other key issues have been identified as key drivers for this technology. As with most civil engineering technologies, the primary reason driving change is cost. Many authors have maintained that composites can offer economic advantages over traditional material options [Goldsworthy, 1995; Goldstein 1996]. Cost advantages noted include initial construction costs as well as lower whole-of-life costs. Weight reduction has also been promoted as an advantage offered by composites. These materials are typically an order of magnitude lighter than traditional material options. While weight in itself is not a primary issue in civil structures, reduction of weight can have major economic benefits. Karbhari [1997] noted a threefold advantage to lighter composite structures: lower dead weight enabling a higher live load capacity for the same supporting structure in the case of replacement structures; lower dead weight enabling the use of lighter and smaller supporting structures in new structures; and lower dead weight enabling greater ease of field placement without heavy equipment.

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The weight saving offered by composites may also be sufficient to allow off-site fabrication of large components which can then be delivered to site by truck and lifted into place. For example, fibre composite bridge deck replacements could be prefabricated in a factory and simply lifted into place on site resulting in shortened closures of major roads. One of the key issues reported to this time has been the offer of increased life span and durability. Internationally, deterioration and premature failure of existing civil infrastructure has resulted in a push for new construction technologies which will increase the service life of such structures [Head, 1998, Seible & Karbhari, 1999]. Composite materials have been noted as a potential candidate for such technology. Composites have also been promoted on a platform of design flexibility. Due to the nature of the material it is possible to construct components and structures which would be impossible in other materials such as steel and concrete. For example, in steel it is an extremely expensive exercise to produce curved beams whereas in composites such structures should be able to be fabricated for a price similar to that of a straight beam. Composites also offer a number of tailorable properties such as vibration and sound attenuation, electrical resistance or conduction and chemical resistance. The advantages of such technology would be application specific, however under appropriate conditions suitable composites could offer properties not available with traditional material. At this stage in the development of composites technology, it is not known how successfully each of the advantages will be ultimately demonstrated.

1.2.2.

EARLY APPLICATIONS OF COMPOSITES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

The application of composites in construction projects is not an entirely new development in the composites industry. Ballinger [1997] noted that composite products have been sold into the civil infrastructure market since the 1950s. However, the majority of such applications did not use composites as a primary structural material. One of the major uses of composites in early infrastructure applications was in decorative facades and panelling. These components were typically glass fibre / polyester laminates produced with depositor guns. Australian examples of this type of application include decorative panels at Toombul Shoppingtown in Brisbane, external cladding panels on Centre Point Tower in the Sydney CBD and the Sabemo Building in North Sydney [Rees, 1999]. Reinforced plastic panelling was also developed for interior applications. In 1978 Kentucky Fried Chicken implemented a hygiene uprating program using Duroform sheets, a reinforced thermoplastic product. Materials were selected for fire resistance, retention of high impact strength under rapid temperature change and colour fastness [Reinforced Plastics, 1998]. Roofing panels have also been widely utilised for a number of years. Two notable projects using glass fibre reinforced panels were the 10 acre roof of the Pontiac Silverdome in Detroit, Michigan and a $180 million contract to supply a 105-acre roofing system for Saudi Arabias Haj Terminal. Both projects were successfully undertaken by Owens Corning [Owens Corning, 1998(c)]
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Despite the scope of some of these early projects, application of composite materials was generally limited to non-structural or semi-structural applications.

1.2.3.

THE INTERNATIONAL PUSH FOR COMPOSITES IN INFRASTRUCTURE

As noted previously, over recent years there has been a concerted worldwide push to migrate composite materials technology into mainstream civil engineering projects. In the past decade the subject of composites in civil engineering structures has moved within research circles from being something of a novelty to a recognised mainstream activity. One of the main indicators of this shift in attitude can be found in the number of papers on the topic being published in international journals and conferences. For example in 1992, proceedings for the 37th International SAMPE Symposium only record two papers related to the topic, by the 41st Symposium in 1996 this number had risen to twenty papers in four sessions dedicated to the subject. The reasons for this shift in focus are many and varied, however one key factor providing the initial impetus for change, was the easing of the cold war and subsequent collapse of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s [Head, 1994]. This change in international relations had a dramatic impact on US military research programs and related funding. Numerous development projects were significantly reduced while others were cancelled altogether. As a result many companies involved with composite materials development and production saw a major downturn in business. In this environment it was natural for these companies, with highly specialised engineering teams, to seek other avenues for their businesses. The largely untapped market of civil infrastructure was thus targeted as a key development opportunity.

1.2.4.

DEMONSTRATION STRUCTURES FOR THE VIABILITY OF COMPOSITES

Over recent years, numerous large scale civil engineering structures have been constructed around the world and in Australia to demonstrate the viability of composite materials in these applications. This section highlights a number of these projects. Aberfeldy Footbridge, Scotland - 1992 Designed and constructed by UK firm Maunsell Structural Plastics, the Aberfeldy footbridge was the worlds first major composite bridge. The 120m long bridge deck is all glass reinforced isophthalic polyester with a central span of 68m. The deck is stayed from two 18m high A-shaped glass reinforced polyester pylons with Parafil cables. These cables are an aramid fibre sheathed in a low density polyethylene coating. Design and construction was undertaken in just 9 months with erection being completed in just 3 months without the use of on-site craneage. The structure was designed for a life to first maintenance of over 20 years. Busel and Lindsay [1997] noted that with a number of people jumping on the structure there was a lively or springy frequency and that while the use of composites at the site was good, the structure would have to be

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redesigned for heavier loads and increased traffic in larger cities. [ References: Maunsell, 1996(a); Head, 1994; Busel and Lindsay, 1997]

Figure 1.2 - All Composite Footbridge, Aberfeldy, Scotland (Source: Maunsell Structural Plastics,1996(a))

Bonds Mill Lift Bridge, Gloucestershire, England - 1993 Also designed by Maunsell Structural Plastics, Bonds Mill was the first advanced composite road bridge designed for full traffic loading up to 40 tonnes. The Bonds Mill bridge is 8.3m long by 4.5m wide and is constructed of glass reinforced isopolyester pultruded box sections. Sections are connected by mechanical interlocks and adhesive bonding. The structure has been noted as an example of the benefits of low weight with the composite deck eliminating the need for a separate lifting tower [Taggart, 1995]. Busel and Lindsay [1997] observed that after two years of service the general condition of the bridge and wear surface were good, however there were signs of material damage on the abutment interfaces from the constant lifting and closing action. [Ref: Maunsell, 1996(b); Taggart,1995; Busel and Lindsay, 1997]

Figure 1.3 - Bonds Mill Lift Bridge (Source: Maunsell Structural Plastics, 1996(b))

No-Name Creek Bridge, Russell, Kansas, USA - 1996 1.10

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ENG8803 Mechanics and Technology of Fibre Composites

Installed by Kansas Structural Composites Inc. (KSCI) in November 1996, the NoName Creek bridge was the first composite bridge installed on a public road in the USA. The short-span bridge is a two-lane rural highway bridge designed to support an AASHTO HS-25 traffic load in each lane. The bridge is 7m long by 8.2m wide and was constructed as a glass fibre reinforced composite sandwich structure. The sandwich structure uses a standard honeycomb arrangement with cells oriented normal to the skin surface. KSCI constructed the bridge deck in segments off-site and thentransported the segments to site for erection. [References: Reinforced Plastics, 1997(a); KSCI, 1998]

Figure 1.4 - Erection of No-Name Creek Bridge, Russell County, Kansas Insert: Cross-Section of Decking (Source: Kansas Structural Composites Inc., 1998

Laurel Lick and Wickwire Run Bridges, West Virginia, USA 1997

Two short-span vehicle bridges were constructed in West Virginia as part of a joint project between West Virginia University and the West Virginia Department of Transportations highway division. The first was at Laurel Lick, Lewis County in May 1997, while the other was constructed at Wickwire Run, Taylor County in September of the same year. Both bridges utilise a pultruded decking system combining hexagonal and trapezoidal members to form a horizontal honeycomb style structure (Creative Pultrusions SuperDeck). Both bridges use decks supported by a series of longitudinal composite stringer beams. Installation of the Laurel Lick bridge from drilling and placement of the pilings to application of the wear surface took only 20 days. Installation of the deck itself took just 5 hours, highlighting the major benefits which can be gained through use of lighter decking systems. It was noted that these bridges were quite expensive to build, however it was projected that costs would decrease with a mass production environment. [References: Reinforced Plastics, 1997(b); Bridge Design and Eng, 1997; Civ. Eng., 1997; Owens Corning, 1998(d); GangaRao et al. , 1999].

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Figure 1.5 - Laurel Lick Bridge, West Virginia with Insert Showing Deck Cross-Section (Source: Creative Pultrusions, 2000)

1.2.5.

FIBRE COMPOSITE BUILDINGS

Though not an overly common example of composite structures, several small buildings have been constructed to demonstrate the possibility of such applications. In 1991, Maunsell Structural Plastics developed an all composite car wash structure for the Mobil oil company. The structure 11m long, 5m wide and 4m high building, was a membrane structure without extra support framing. It was constructed from lightweight prefabricated panel and assembled on-site by a small team of workers. Composites were selected for their good corrosion resistance, high quality surface finish without the need for extra cladding and for ease of construction. [Maunsell, 1997(a)]

Figure 1.11 - All Composite Car Wash Structure (Source: Maunsell Structural Plastics, 1997(a))

Maunsell also constructed a small two story office structure in 1992 as an alternative to traditional site accommodation during the Second Severn Crossing project. This structure is once again a membrane structure formed by interlocking pultruded panels. The building was large enough to accommodate eight office staff and a meeting room for 20 people. Developed as rapid erection, cost-effective and high quality building system, the building was also found to offer good thermal resistance and successfully passed strict fire regulations. [Maunsell, 1997(b)]

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Figure 1.12 - All Composite Office Structure (Source: Maunsell Structural Plastics, 1997(b))

1.2.6.

MARINE FENDER PILINGS

Over recent years several companies have developed composite technologies for waterfront applications. Of particular interest is the work being undertaken to develop composite alternatives to traditional pilings. Plastic Pilings Inc. have developed a polyester/fibreglass piling system to replace traditional timber piles. Composite options were developed due to their resistance to saltwater environments and their abrasion resistance. Hardcore Composites have also developed a fender pile, however these piles utilise a vinyl ester resin and a knitted glass fibre reinforcement. Through the use of a resin infusion method, Hardcore is able to produce high quality piles in a diverse array of diameters and lengths. A number of port developments in the USA have used composite piles over recent years. The structures outlined in the sections above are only a small portion of the structures built using composite materials over recent years. While many of these structures probably do not represent an optimal solution to composite application, they do demonstrate the viability of these materials in large structural applications. Much will be learnt over the coming years as these structures age in real-world environments and valuable experience will be gained in developing structural solutions which will provide clients with desired performance levels. It is also noted that many of these structures were expensive to construct and this is an issue which must be addressed for composites to make further progress into mainstream civil engineering. Nevertheless, these structures give sufficient evidence that composites are structurally capable materials and do offer significant potential for application in civil engineering.

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1.3

DEVELOPMENTS IN AUSTRALIA

As in many other developed nations, Australian asset owners are actively seeking solutions for the rehabilitation and replacement of deteriorating civil infrastructure. While the reasons for this interest are somewhat different in Australia than in other parts of the world, major asset owners are faced with the same problem of having decreasing budgets to address an ever increasing demand for structural replacements or upgrades.

Australias First Fibre Composite Bridge, Coutts Crossing 2003 While the lack of harsh winters and associated salting of roads removes one of the major causes of bridge deterioration that exists in the USA and Europe, Australia too faces a major bridge replacement program. There are approximately 40,000 road bridges of 7m span or larger in Australia, with a total asset value estimated around $10 billion. Of these, about 10,000 are of timber construction, mostly on the Eastern Seaboard. While old forest hardwood timber is a durable material, many of these bridges, in excess of 60%, were built before the 1940's and were designed to lower loading standards than would be required today. Many of these structures require major rehabilitation or replacement now or in the near future. Hardwood as a structural material is a rapidly diminishing resource and infrastructure owners are actively seeking alternative solutions. With their purported high durability and ability to mimic timber performance through judicious design, fibre composites have become an area of significant interest. The first fibre composite bridge in the Australian public road network was installed on 19 February 2003 (Figure 1.6). This installation was the culmination of a development and innovation process lasting over 5 years and involving a wide range of interested parties including; Queensland Department of Main Roads (QDMR), the Roads and Traffic Authority of New South Wales (RTA), the Department of Industry Science and Resources (DISR), the University of Southern Queensland, Wagners Composite Fibre Technologies (WCFT), the Cooperative Research Centre for Advanced Composite Structures (CRC-ACS) and consulting engineers Connell Wagner and Cardno MBK. The major beams in the design consist of a box section formed using glass-reinforced isophthalic-polyester pultruded profiles. Additional carbon fibre reinforcement was incorporated into the base of the deck to enhance stiffness. Plain concrete was used to form a compression flange on top of the beams. The selected installation site was an existing timber span (circa 1940) on a bridge over the Orara River at Coutts Crossing in northern New South Wales.

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Figure 1.6 Coutts Crossing Bridge

The new bridge deck design was seen to offer substantial benefits over traditional bridge deck design, including: Installation in only 5 days, instead of 8 to 10 weeks for the conventional alternative, 90% savings on traffic control costs, and 75% saving on bridge transportation costs.

The Brisbane RiverWalk Project (2003) RiverWalk is a 34 km long trail along the banks of the inner city reaches of the Brisbane River. The RiverWalk concept caters for jogging, cycling, walking and recreation and joins people and the river together. It is an important transport link catering for nearly 20,000 person trips per day. In keeping with the theme of providing a variety of experiences, a section near the Story Bridge has been designed as a floating walkway (Figure 1.7). The walkway is 850 m long and 5.4 m wide. It has 600 mm freeboard and is provided with universal access. The walkway consists of 288 individual concrete floats connected by beams called walers.

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Figure 1.7 Floating Riverwalk in Brisbane

The original waler design utilised timber and steel which are the traditional materials for this type of structure. However, due to the aggressive marine environment, these walers would require replacement every 10 to 15 years which made them the weak link in the 100 year design life required for the walkway. In a bid to find a better alternative, Brisbane City Council considered the use of fibre composites for the walers. Based on a detailed set of specifications including structural performance, vandal resistance, boat impact and aesthetics, a revolutionary new waler beam concept was developed in close collaboration with the University of Southern Queensland (Figure 1.8). Although being twice the cost of timber and steel, the whole-of-life costs of composite walers are predicted to be significantly lower.

Figure 1.8 Fibre Composite Walers used in Floating Riverwalk

Rehabilitation of concrete structures: Strengthening of West Gate Bridge Approach Spans In 2001 one of the worlds largest carbon fibre strengthening programs was undertaken in Melbourne, Victoria. The West Gate Bridge in Melbourne links the western industrial and residential areas to the main city and is one of the cities busiest transport corridors. The 650m long bridge comprises a pre-cast, segmented box girder with pre-cast, posttensioned cantilever frames and a composite reinforced concrete deck slab. The structure was designed in the mid 1960s. The construction of additional approach lanes to the bridge required the placement of an additional traffic lane within the existing roadway. The bridge was originally designed for a maximum of 8 traffic lanes and thus it was determined that strengthening of the structure was required to accommodate the new lanes. URS Australia Pty Ltd undertook a structural assessment of the concrete approach spans on behalf of the Victorian state road authority (VicRoads). VicRoads decided to
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undertake the necessary strengthening works via a Design and Construct contract. The overall project cost was of the order of A$10 million. URS Australia Pty Ltd joined with Abigroup and Savcor to launch a successful bid for the project, which was awarded in May 2001. The use of fibre composite laminates was a key component in the winning bid. Strengthening of the structure was achieved through a combination of external posttensioning using longitudinal steel tendons, as well as the application of bonded FRP strips and sheets (Figure 1.9). BBR Systems Ltd (Zurich) supplied the FRP products for the project. FRP was used for both flexural, shear and torsional strengthening. To achieve adequate anchorage, the shear and torsional laminates were slotted into the concrete deck using a special concrete cutting saw. The cantilever frames were strengthened for flexure. FRP was placed near the top of the pre-cast concrete frame to increase the tensile capacity, however due to the overreinforced nature of the cantilever, it was also found necessary to provide bottom flange compression strengthening in the form of steel plates.

Figure 1.9 Carbon Fibre Strengthening of West Gate Bridge

The scale and complexity of the FRP strengthening undertaken in this project was unprecedented at the time and has demonstrated the cost effectiveness of FRP for strengthening large span concrete bridges in Australia.

Pedestrian Bridges Fibre composites have been identified as a possible answer for the maintenance and upgrade of hardwood pedestrian bridges. Unlike steel and concrete, fibre composites are light weight, can be designed to mimic hardwood timber behaviour (an essential requirement for bridge maintenance), are almost maintenance free, and are more sustainable from an environmental perspective. A number of these bridges have been installed in Australia and other parts of the world (Figure 1.10)

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Figure 1.10 Installation of Fibre Composite Pedestrian Bridge in Brisbane Forest Park

1.4

ISSUES FOR FURTHER INTEGRATION OF COMPOSITES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING.

From the applications listed above and other surveys of the expert literature, it is apparent that there are a number of key issues which must be addressed for composites to become a truly viable option in civil engineering structures. This section highlights six issues which are seen as pivotal to the furtherance of composites technology. 1.4.1. COST

It has been noted that the single most important factor in the development of civil engineering structures is cost [Goldsworthy, 1995; Van Erp et al., 2000]. For engineers to begin to specify the use of composite materials within their structures there must be no related financial penalty. Failure to adequately address this issue has traditionally been one of the greatest hindrances to wider usage of these materials. The key to developing cost effective structures in composites lies in two areas. The first is in design. Robinson [1991] has noted that smart design is by far the biggest cost saver in composite part production. The high price of fibre reinforced laminates necessitates designs which truly exploit the full structural potential of these materials. Structural elements must be developed such that the minimum amount of these expensive materials is used. This requires novel engineering techniques and the creation of new and innovative design solutions. J P Busel has recognised this in noting the importance of the combination of what you use composites for and putting them in the right places and that putting composite elements where you need them will be up to the skill of the civil engineer and will determine composites future [Bodamer,1998]. The second area which determines cost is material conversion or fabrication. Karbhari [1997] has noted that overall cost-effectiveness is intrinsically tied to the degree of efficiency in materials conversion through the choice of a manufacturing process or processes. Many have taken this to require the use of automated processing techniques
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and vast amounts of money have been poured into the development of technologies such as pultrusion, filament winding and automated tape layup. However some studies have indicated that this may not be the case [Robinson, 1991]. The key problems with automated production in a civil engineering environment is that many elements are essentially one-off or at best a very limited parts run. Some appear to have taken the view that as civil engineers use a limited number of standardised steel sections, this state of affairs can be translated to composite materials. This has resulted in several major manufacturers producing standardised pultruded structural profiles. However, one of the major advantages of composite materials is their design flexibility and tailorability. It would appear more desirable to use an approach more akin to reinforced concrete where individual members are custom designed and purpose fabricated. In such an environment the emphasis is required more on flexible low-cost tooling and mass material handling than on standardised high volume production.

1.4.2.

STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE

A key requirement for any structural section is its ability to meet the performance requirements of the application concerned. In civil engineering structures this typically translates to; an ability to carry very large loads, particularly concentrated loads in connection areas, sufficient stiffness to meet strict serviceability criteria, and robustness and resistance to damage.

One of the problems with many of the existing composite products being promoted for civil engineering applications is that they fail to meet these basic performance criteria. As note previously, a number of manufacturers produce pultruded structural profiles using fibre reinforced laminates. These are fashioned after traditional steel structural sections like I-sections, box beams and channels (see Figure 1.13). Though these products have been widely promoted for civil engineering projects, they often fail to adequately address the criteria list above. One of the major problems with these members lies in the low elastic modulus of the composite material. Szak et al. [1999] has demonstrated that even with new carbon/glass hybrid sections, design of pultruded beams is still governed by the elastic modulus and the serviceability limit state.

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Figure 1.13 - Standard Pultruded Structural Profiles (Source: Strongwell Corporation)

Maji et al. [1997] has also noted the effect of lower material modulus values and concluded that design with this type of member is governed by the buckling capacity of the web and flange rather than the ultimate load capacity of the flange. Maji et al. also concluded that due to these problems, pultruded sections did not represent an economically viable alternative to conventional materials because the composite beams cost more and can carry substantially less load than a similar steel beam. Several studies have also been published on the behaviour of new composite bridge deck systems. An examination of the experimental results published on these structures indicates that many of these structures do not fail due to the ultimate capacity of primary load bearing laminates but rather due to local or global buckling effects [Harik, 1996; Rizkalla, 2000]. This indicates an inefficient material usage which can ultimately result in excessive costs. Many of these types of structures have also exhibited a limited capability to handle concentrated loads under loading points or at connections. Structural members used in civil engineering structures typically require a high degree of robustness. This is important not only for when the member is in service but also during the construction phase. Typical construction practice means that members can be subjected to numerous impacts which range from something being dropped on the member, to the member itself being dropped onto the ground. Structural elements must be capable of taking this type of abuse without significant loss of capacity. In-service conditions also require structural components to possess good robustness and durability. Discussions with engineers from the Queensland Department of Main Roads have highlighted concerns such as vandalism, vehicular impact, and extreme environmental conditions such as floods or bushfires. For composite materials to successfully migrate into mainstream civil engineering, structural elements must be developed to successfully address these issues. This requires the development of new and innovative elements tailored to the basic characteristics of composite materials. It is not sufficient to simply take existing metal designs and fabricate them with composites. A new composites approach is required.

1.4.3.

DESIGN DATA AND MATERIAL PROPERTY INFORMATION

The lack of a comprehensive database of materials information and design properties has been identified by a number of authors as a major factor in the failure of composite
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materials to make more significant inroads into civil engineering [Ballinger, 1992; Wilkinson and GangaRao. , 1993; Scalzi et al, 1998]. If engineers do not possess ready access to the information necessary to undertake design with a new material, that material will likely be rejected in favour of a more traditional option. It is important for proponents of composite material technology to recognise that they are competing against traditional materials with well established databases of design and performance, and a long history of successful application. One of the problems which has existed for composites in developing this type of information for engineers, has been the vast array of constituent options available. A survey of the literature indicates a wide array of material choices each with differing properties. This situation is exacerbated by the fact that reported material properties for the same constituent combination are often vastly different between publications. It will be demonstrated later in this study book that a significant portion of this variation can be eliminated by the use of more appropriate characterisation systems for composites.

1.4.4.

DURABILITY

The topic of durability of composite materials is one which has elicited much interest over the past few years. Many material suppliers and fabricators have marketed their products on a platform of a greatly improved durability over traditional materials. Claims of life spans in excess of 100 years are not uncommon. However it should be realised that a significant portion of these claims are more about marketing than hard evidence. It has been noted that beyond cost issues, the most significant technical obstacle preventing the extensive use of such materials (composites) is a lack of long-term durability and performance data comparable to the data available for more traditional construction materials like steel and concrete [Liao et al. , 1998]. The need for such data is supported by many other authors [Wilkinson and GangaRao , 1993; Karbhari, 1997; Scalzi, 1998]. Numerous studies of composite material behaviour have been undertaken over the past fifty years in the areas of creep, stress corrosion, fatigue, environmental fatigue, moisture effects and natural weathering, however most of these have been targeted at applications in the aerospace industry [Liao et al. , 1997]. Due to their different applications, these studies normally involve loading and environmental conditions quite dissimilar to those found in typical civil engineering situations. Wilkinson and GangaRao [1993] maintained that the database of information created for aerospace applications cannot be used in place of a specialised database for composites in construction. One of the key differences between aerospace and civil engineering applications lies in maintenance. Aircraft structures are fully inspected and maintained on a regular basis, however in civil engineering it is not uncommon for a structure to sit for more than twenty years with little more than an occasional cursory inspection and coat of paint. Ballinger [1998] noted that despite current problems with traditional materials, steelreinforced concrete bridges can last many decades if they are properly maintained . One of the problems in the civil arena is that we dont maintain bridges in a prompt

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manner. The goal in many cases then is to create structures with a life to first maintenance in excess of twenty years. Accelerated testing is commonly used to predict long term behaviour of materials. For example, in the development of composite highway bridges in the USA, accelerated laboratory aging was used to predict a repair free life of forty to fifty years [Civ. Eng., 1997]. In truth, the only way of verifying such a claim is by time itself and in many instances this may be the method which best shapes our understanding. While long-term testing is ultimately the best method of providing an understanding of composites, such information does not just happen. There is a definite need to initiate test programs which will generate data in the key areas of; performance degradation over time, fatigue life, creep, fire resistance, weatherability, and maintainability.

Chapter 9 of this study book will discuss the durability of glass reinforced fibre composites in more detail.

1.4.5.

DESIGN STANDARDS AND CODES

It is well known that civil engineering is a profession governed by standards and design codes. The lack of design codes and standards for composite materials in civil engineering structures has long been seen as a major inhibitor to the wider usage of these materials in mainstream applications [Scalzi, 1998; Tranberg, 1999]. While some hold that standards and codes stifle innovation, the majority of people within the industry recognise that this is not true. In many instances the development of appropriate design and construction codes is an enabling mechanism which promotes industry growth [Ballinger, 1997]. For example, appropriate design codes could significantly cut development costs by reducing the volume of materials and component testing which must currently be undertaken to verify designs and provide a legally defendable foundation for construction. Over recent years there have been international efforts to develop design codes for composites in civil engineering. Notable among these are the design code for pultruded structural sections being developed by the American Society for Civil Engineers [Chambers, 1997] and EUROCOMP Design Code and Handbook entitled Structural Design of Polymer Composites [Clarke, 1996]. It should be recognised though that these documents are still under development and that a number of major issues have to be addressed before they become certified and accepted codes of practice.

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In Australia at this time, there exists no design code covering the use of composite materials in civil engineering structures. Chapter 5 and 6 of this study book will discuss the design of fibre composite structures in more detail.
1.4.6. EDUCATION

While the resolution of all the above issues will provide the tools necessary to further the implementation of composites in civil engineering applications, the successful exploitation of this new market will hinge on the transfer of knowledge into the general engineering community. Education is thus one of the most important issues determining the broader success of this technology. This education is an activity involving three primary groups; existing professional engineers, material suppliers and fabricators, and the next generation of structural and civil engineers.

Successful education programs targeted at each of these groups will be crucial in the furtherance of composites technology, however the key target must be the engineers. For it will be the engineers who will recommend design solutions to the client - the ultimate decision maker. Engineers must be trained in all aspects of material selection, material specification, structural design, production specification, and quality control. Engineers must come to recognise composite materials as another material in their arsenal along with timber, concrete and steel, and they must be taught which option is most appropriate for a given situation. Much of the documentation for this education will be determined by the standards and design codes developed, however as with codes for other structural materials, there will be a need for significant ongoing training. In this respect, composites must learn from the successful efforts of other materials.

1.5

CONCLUSIONS

The preceding sections have provided much of the background material associated with fibre composites. It has been shown that composites are a relatively new class of structural material and that composites in civil engineering is a technology still very much in its infancy. It has been noted that much of the material data generated through these earlier developments are directed to applications possessing very different loading conditions and service environments to those found in typical civil engineering structures. Much of the production technology has also been developed around industries which are structured very differently to civil engineering.

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While a number of structures have been constructed around the world in recent years to demonstrate the viability of composites in civil engineering structures, these structures do not always represent an optimal solution to the design problem. It has been seen that there are a number of major issues which must still be addressed. Section 1.3 has identified six of these key issues which are seen to require addressing for composites to become truly integrated into the civil engineering world: Cost. Performance of structural elements. The availability of design data and material property information. Durability of composites in service. The existence of certified standards and design codes. Education.

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1.6

EXAMPLE QUESTIONS

1: Name two examples of composite materials in nature. 2: Why are composite materials often referred to as synthetic composites. 3: Which industry was the driving force for fibre composite materials in the early days? 4: What is the characteristic of fibre composites that drives its use in aerospace applications? 5: Name some fibre composite manufacturing technologies which were developed by the marine industry. 6: Which issue is paramount to the use of fibre composites in civil engineering? 7: Name three major advantages associated with the use of lighter composite structures in civil engineering? 8: Name six issues that have to be addressed to increase the use of composites in the construction industry. 9: In terms of durability, what is the major difference between aerospace and civil engineering? 10: From a structural engineering perspective what governs the design of most fibre composite structures in civil engineering?

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1.7

REFERENCES

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LIAO, K., SCHULTHEISZ, C. R., HUNSTON, D. L., and BRINSON, L. C., 1998. Long-Term Durability of Fibre-Reinforced Polymer-Matrix Composite Materials for Infrastructure: A Review. Journal of Advanced Materials. Vol. 30, No. 4. LIAO, K., et al. , 1997. Long Term Durability of Glass-Fiber Reinforced Composites in Infrastructure Applications. Journal of Advanced Materials. Vol. 28, No. 3. MAJI, A. K., ACREE, R., SATPATHI, D., and DONNELLY, K., 1997. Evaluation of Pultruded FRP Composites for Structural Applications. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering. August 1997. MAUNSELL STRUCTURAL PLASTICS, 1996(a). Aberfeldy Footbridge, Scotland, United Kingdom [online]. Available from:http://www.maunsell.co.uk/acrobat/projects/aberfeld.pdf [Accessed 30 May 2000]. MAUNSELL STRUCTURAL PLASTICS, 1996(b). Bonds Mill Lift Bridge, Gloucestershire, United Kingdom. [online]. Available from:http://www.maunsell.co.uk/acrobat/projects/bonds.pdf [Accessed 30 May 2000]. MAUNSELL STRUCTURAL PLASTICS, 1997(a). Advanced Composite Car Wash Housing [online]. Available from:http://www.maunsell.co.uk/acrobat/projects/accs_car.pdf [Accessed 30 May 2000]. MAUNSELL STRUCTURAL PLASTICS, 1997(b). Advanced Composite Office Building [online]. Available from:- http://www.maunsell.co.uk/acrobat/projects/accs_site.pdf [Accessed 30 May 2000]. McNALLY, S., 1996. An Innovative History in Water. Composites Fabrication. August 1996. OWENS CORNING, 1998(a). A History of Innovation - Historical Background [online]. Available from: http://www.owens-corning.com/owens/aquainted/about/history.htm [Accessed: 11 May 1998]. OWENS CORNING, 1998(b). A History of Innovation - The 1940s [online]. Available from: http://www.owens-corning.com/owens/aquainted/about/1940.htm [Accessed: 11 May 1998]. OWENS CORNING, 1998(c). A History of Innovation - The 1970s [online]. Available from: http://www.owens-corning.com/owens/aquainted/about/1970.htm [Accessed: 11 May 1998]. OWENS CORNING, 1998(d). Bridges [online]. Available from: http://www.owenscorning.com/owens/composites/applications/infra/bridge.htm [Accessed: 11 May 1998]. PETERSON, A., 1998. Peter Head: Advanced Composite Innovator. Bridge Design and Engineering. Second Quarter 1998.

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REES, A., 1999. Fibre Composite Manufacturing Technology in Australia. In: P.E. Simpson and G. M. Van Erp, eds. Proceedings of ACCSE 1. Toowoomba: USQ Press REINFORCED PLASTICS, 1997(a). Reinforced Polymer Honeycomb Cores Make Bridges Light and Strong. Application News. Reinforced Plastics. January 1997. REINFORCED PLASTICS, 1997(b). Pultruded Bridge Decks Under Trial in West Virginia. Application News. Reinforced Plastics. April 1997. REINFORCED PLASTICS, 1997(c). Kolding Bridge: a Technical Landmark. Application News Reinforced Plastics. September 1997. REINFORCED PLASTICS, 1998. Flashback - 20 years ago. Reinforced Plastics, May 1998. REINHART, T. J., 1998. Overview of Composite Materials. In: S. T. PETERS, ed. Handbook of Composites. London: Chapman and Hall ROBINSON, M. J., 1991. A Qualitative Analysis of Some of the Issues Affecting the Cost ofComposite Structures. In: R.L. Carri, et al., eds. Proceedings of the 23rd International SAMPE Technical Conference. Covina: Society for the Advancement of Materials and Process Engineering. ROSATO, D. V., 1982. An Overview of Composites. In: G. LUBIN, ed. Handbook of Composites. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. SCALZI, J. B., PODOLNY, W., and TANG, B. M., 1998. What Bridge Engineers Need to Know About Composites. In: B. A. Wilson et al, eds. Proceedings of the 30th International SAMPE Technical Conference. Covina: Society for the Advancement of Materials and Process Engineering. SZACK, P. J., ROBSON, B. N., HARIK, I. E. and BRAILSFORD, B., 1999. The Clear Creek Hybrid Composite I-Girder Pedestrian Bridge. Journal of Composites for Construction. May 1999. TAGGART, H., 1995. Composites Solve Bridge Problem in Rural England [online]. Available from:- http://iti.acns.nwu.edu/composites/problem.html [Accessed 12 December 1996]. TRANBERG, C. H., 1999. Fibre Composites in Tomorrows Structural Engineering Industry. In: P.E. Simpson and G. M. Van Erp, eds. Proceedings of ACCSE 1. Toowoomba: USQ Press . VAN ERP, G., CATTELL, C. and AYRES, S.,(2006) A Fair Dinkum Approach to Fibre Composites in Civil Engineering, Construction and Building Materials 20, pp 2-10. VAN ERP, G., CATTELL, C., and HELDT, T., (2005). "Fibre Composite Structures in Australia's Civil Engineering Market: an anatomy of innovation." Progress in Structural Engineering and Materials 7(3): 150-160.

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VAN ERP G M (2004), Civil Engineering Composites in Australia, IIFC FRP International, Volume 1, Issue 1, pp 3-7. VAN ERP G M, HELDT T J and CATTELL C (2004), Alternative Hardwood girders An Innovation with Composites, IIFC FRP International, Volume 1, Issue 3. VAN ERP G M and AYERS S R (2004), A Fair Dinkum Approach to Fibre Composites in Civil Engineering, Proceedings of 2nd International Conference "Advanced Polymer Composites for Structural Applications in Construction", ACIC 2004, Guildford, UK, pp.101-113 VAUGHAN, D. J., 1998. Fiberglass Reinforcement. In: S. T. PETERS, ed. Handbook of Composites. London: Chapman and Hall. WILKINSON, A. R. and GANGA RAO, H. V. S., 1993. Fiber Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites in Construction. In: V. Bailey, et al, eds. Proceedings of the 38th International SAMPE Symposium, Covina: Society for the Advancement of Materials and Process Engineering.

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