NOUNS

COMMON Proper nouns name specific persons, places or things. EG: Alia is my best friend PROPER Common nouns name any person, place or thing. EG: I always play at a park. *comes with a COUNTABLE&UNCOU NTABLE *There is no plural form for an uncountable noun EG: Rice is good for you SNGULAR&PLURAL Singular : noun - S Plural: singular form +s CONCRETE Concrete nouns name things in their material forms. EG: The spanner fell on the garage floor. *comes with the COLLECTIVE Collective Nouns name a group or a collection EG: A number of boys playing football at the field COMPUND Compound Nouns are made up of two or more words. EG: My duty is to clean the blackboard. ABSTRACT Abstract Nouns name concepts, ideas or emotions. EG: I have a dream.

DETEMINERS
A determiner is used to modify a noun. It indicates reference to something specific or something of a particular type. This function is usually performed by articles, demonstratives, possessive determiners, or quantifiers. ARTICLE The definite and indefinite articles are all determiners. Definite-the Indefinite-a and an DEMONSTRATIVE There are four demonstrative determiners in English and they are: o This o That o These o Those EG: This camera is mine *this modify the noun camera POSSESSIVE Possessive adjectives modify the noun following it in order to show possession. o My o Your o His o Her o Its o Our o Your o Their EG: This is my house QUANTIFIERS Quantifiers are followed by nouns which they modify. Examples of quantifiers include: some, any, few, little, more, much, many, each, every, both, all, enough, half, little, whole,

PRONOUNS
PERSONAL A personal pronoun allows a child to communicate about a specific person or thing and changes its form to indicate person, number, gender, and case. o I(me) o You(you) o She(her) o He(him) o It(it) o We(us) o You(you) o They(them) DEMONSTRATIVE These pronouns are used to demonstrate (or indicate). o o o o This That These those POSSESIVE Possessive pronouns are used to show possession. As they are used as adjectives, they are also known as 'possessive adjectives'. My(mine) Your(yours) His(his) Her(hers) Its(its) Our(ours) Their(theirs) REFLEXIVE A reflexive pronoun ends ...self or ...selve s and refers to another noun or pronoun in the sentence o o o o o o o o Myself Yourself Himself Herself Itself Ourselves Yourselves Themselves INTENSIVE Intensive pronouns often appear as appositives after no uns or other pronouns. EG: "He wondered, as he had many times wondered before, whether he himself was a lunatic."

RECIPROCAL Reciprocal pronouns are used for actions or feelings that are reciprocated. The two most common reciprocal pronouns are each other One another.

RELATIVE Relative pronouns are used to add more information to a sentence. o o o o o o Which That Who Whom Whose where

INTERROGATIVE These pronouns are used in questions. Although they are classified as pronouns, it is not easy to see how they replace nouns. o o o o o Who Which What Where how

*situated a middle of the sentences

*situated in front of sentence QUANTITATIVE All of them are both noun- and adjective pronouns. o o o o Much Many A few A little INDEFINATE Indefinite pronouns are used for non-specific things. This is the largest group of pronouns. o o o o o o o All, few Some, either Any, none Several, one Anyone, no one Nobody, Both Each

Many and a few are used with countable nouns Much, a little with uncountable

ADJECTIVES
An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies. FORM One word Compound
A compound adjective is an adjective that comprises more than one word. Usually, hyphens are used to link the words together to show that it is one adjective. EG: Claire worked as a part-time keeper at the safari park.

GRADABLITY Gradable
angry, big, busy, clever, cold, deep, fast, friendly, good, happy, high, hot, important, long, popular, rich, strong, tall, warm, weak, young A gradable adjective can also have comparative and superlative forms

STRUCTURE Attributives
ones normally come right before the noun they qualify

Predicative
Come after to be or similar verbs such as become and seem.

COMPARISON happy-happier-happiest good-better-best ORDER size-age-shape-colournationality-material

Non-gradable
Non-gradable adjectives do not normally have comparative and superlative forms: Often, non-gradable adjectives are used alone: alive, awful, black, boiling, certain, correct, dead, domestic, enormous, environmental, excellent, freezing, furious, gigantic, huge, immediately, impossible, miniscule, mortal, overjoyed, perfect, pregnant, principal, ridiculous, superb, terrible, terrified, unique, unknown, white, whole

Participial Present participles are the cause of something. Past participles show the person or thing has received an effect. EG:
The movie was frightening the children. Explanation: In this example, the movie is the cause of the children being afraid. The children were frightened by the movie. Explanation: In this example, the children received the action of the past participle.
One can also view these two forms as the present participle making something happen and past participle describing a state of being.

The explanations were very confusing. The students were very confused.

VERBS
BASE Sometimes there is more than one kind of verb in a sentence. There are auxiliary verbs, modal verbs, and main verbs (sometimes called full or non-auxiliary verbs). The main verb expresses the main action or state of being of the subject in the sentence and changes form according to the subject (singular, plural, 1st person, 2nd person, 3rd person). MAIN&AUXILIARY Verbs be, do, have, will when they are followed by another verb (the full verb) in order to form a question, a negative sentence, a compound tense or the passive. ACTION Action verbs are verbs that show the performance of an action. They are dynamic verbs that show something happening.

STATIVE&DYNAMIC Stative Refer to a state or condition which is quite static or unchanging. They can be divided into verbs of perception or cognition (which refer to things in the mind), or verbs of relation (which describe the relationships between things). EG: I love her
Love, hate, like, see, hear, sound, think , mind,, recognize, seem, have, prefer, doubt, consist of, mean

TRANSITIVE&INTRANSITIVE The meaning of a transitive verb is incomplete without a direct object, as in the following examples: INCOMPLETE The shelf holds. COMPLETE The shelf holds three books and a vase of flowers. An intransitive verb, on the other hand, cannot take a direct object: EG: This plant has thrived on the south windowsill.

FINITE&NON-FINITE A finite verb (sometimes called main verbs) is a verb that has a subject; this means that it can be the main verb in a sentence. It shows tense (past / present etc) or number (singular / plural). EG: I live in Germany. A non-finite verb has no subject, tense or number. The only non-finite verb forms are the infinitive (indicated by to), the gerund or the participle. EG: I travelled to Germany to improve my German.

Dynamic There are many types of dynamic verbs, but most of them describe activities or events which can begin and finish. EG: She is playing tennis
Eat, drink, go, type, read, write, listen, speak, watch, say, grow, work, sleep, cook, talk

ADVERBS
Adverbs are used to MODIFY verbs, adjectives or other adverbs, E.g. the dog barks loudly. How does the dog bark? Loudly MANNER
This adverb usually comes after the direct object or if there is no direct object, after the verb: EG: He works well

TIME
This adverb usually comes either at the very beginning of the sentence or at the end. o o o o Yet Still Before afterwards

PLACE/POSTIONS
This adverb usually comes after the object, otherwise after the verb: o o o here everywhere anywhere

EG: Ive done that journey before

EG: I saw her there

FREQUANCY
This adverb comes after the verb 'to be': with 'used to' and 'have' the frequency adverb is usually placed in front:

DURATION
If you begin a sentence with one of the following, the normal word order changes - the verb comes first followed by the subject: Never, seldom, scarcely, When, no sooner, then, nowhere, in no circumstances, on no account, only then, not only

DEGREE
This adverb can modify an adverb or an adjective and comes before the word it modifies: o o o o Almost, just Nearly, barely Quite, scarcely Hardly

o o o

always sometimes often

PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions are words that specify place, direction, and time. There are three types of prepositions

PLACE
Place prepositions clarify the place someone or somebody. o o In On At

TIME
Time prepositions define time. o o o o In At On For During While

DIRECTION
Direction prepositions are used to clarify the direction of someone or something o o o Under Over Right left

CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are words that link other words, phrases, or clauses. There are three types of conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, and correlative conjunctions.

COORDINATING Coordinating conjunctions connect two words or groups of words with similar values. In other words, coordinating conjunctions may connect two words, two phrases, two independent clauses, or two dependent clauses.

SUBBORDNATING Subordinating conjunctions connect two groups of words by making one into a subordinating clause. The subordinating clause acts as one huge adverb, answering the questions when or why about the main clause, or imposing conditions or opposition on it

CORRELATIVE Correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs. They are similar to coordinating conjunctions because they join sentence elements that are similar in importance o o o both, and Neither, nor Not only, but also

FANBOYS: o For o And o Nor o But o Or o Yet o so

Note: The subordinating conjunction does not always come between the two clauses it connects. Often, it comes at the beginning of the first clause.

INTERJECTION
An interjection is a word added to a sentence to convey emotion. It is not grammatically related to any other part of the sentence. You usually follow an interjection with an exclamation mark. Interjections are uncommon in formal academic prose, except in direct quotations. The highlighted words in the following sentences are interjections: Ouch, that hurt! Oh no, I forgot that the exam was today. Hey! Put that down! I heard one guy say to another guy, "He has a new car, eh?" I don't know about you but, good lord, I think taxes are too high!

Modals
1) can
Use Ability to do sth. in the present (substitute form: to be able to) Permission to do sth. in the present (substitute form: to be allowed to) request offer suggestion possibility Examples I can speak English. Can I go to the cinema? Can you wait a moment, please? I can lend you my car till tomorrow. Can we visit Grandma at the weekend? It can get very hot in Arizona.

2) could
Use Ability to do sth. in the past (substitute form: to be able to) Examples I could speak English.

Permission to do sth. in the past (substitute form: I could go to the cinema. to be allowed to) polite question * polite request * polite offer * polite suggestion * possibility * Could I go to the cinema, please? Could you wait a moment, please? I could lend you my car till tomorrow. Could we visit Grandma at the weekend? It could get very hot in Montana.

3) May
Use possibility Permission to do sth. in the present (substitute form: to be allowed to) polite suggestion Examples It may rain today. May I go to the cinema? May I help you?

4) Might
Use possibility (less possible than may) * hesitant offer * Examples It might rain today. Might I help you?

5) Must
Use force, necessity possibility advice, recommendation Examples I must go to the supermarket today. You must be tired. You must see the new film with Brad Pitt.

6) must not/may not

Use prohibition Examples You mustn't work on dad's computer. You may not work on dad's computer.

7) Need not
Use not necessary Examples I needn't go to the supermarket; we're going to the restaurant tonight.

8) ought to
Use advice obligation Examples You ought to drive carefully in bad weather. You ought to switch off the light when you leave the room.

9) shall
instead of will in the 1st person Use suggestion Examples Shall I carry your bag?

10) should
Use advice obligation Examples You should drive carefully in bad weather. You should switch off the light when you leave the room.

11) will

Use wish, request, demand, order (less polite than would) prediction, assumption promise spontaneous decision habits

Examples Will you please shut the door? I think it will rain on Friday. I will stop smoking. Can somebody drive me to the station? - I will. She's strange, she'll sit for hours without talking.

12) would
Use wish, request (more polite than will) habits in the past * no past forms - future forms Examples Would you shut the door, please? Sometimes he would bring me some flowers.