Principl of Enhanced Heat Transfer

SECOND EDITION

Ralph L Webb Nae-Hyun Kim

Taylor & Francis

Taylor & Francis Group Boca Raton London New York Singapore

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO ENHANCED HEAT TRANSFER 1.1 1.2 INTRODUCTION THE ENHANCEMENT TECHNIQUES 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.3 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.4 1.5 Passive Techniques Active Techniques Technique vs. Mode General Remarks U.S. Patent Literature Manufacturer's Information

xxi 1 1 3 3 7 10 11 11 13 18 19 21 21 21 23 24 25 26 26 28 29 29

PUBLISHED LITERATURE

BENEFITS OF ENHANCEMENT COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS OF ENHANCED SURFACES 1.5.1 1.5.2 1.5.3 1.5.4 1.5.5 1.5.6 1.5.7 Heat (and Mass) Exchanger Types of Interest Illustrations of Enhanced Tubular Surfaces Enhanced Fin Geometries for Gases Plate-Type Heat Exchangers Cooling Tower Packings Distillation and Column Packings Factors Affecting Commercial Development

1.6 1.7

DEFINITION OF HEAT TRANSFER AREA POTENTIAL FOR ENHANCEMENT 1.7.1 PEC Example 1.1

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1.7.2

PEC Example 1.2

30 30 , 31 33 33 34 35 37 39 40 41 42 42 42 44 44 45 46 46 46 49 51 52 52 54

NOMENCLATURE REFERENCES CHAPTER 2: HEAT TRANSFER FUNDAMENTALS 2.1 2.2 INTRODUCTION HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN THEORY 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.3 2.4 Thermal Analysis Heat Exchanger Design Methods Comparison of LMTD and NTU Design Methods

FIN EFFICIENCY HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS AND FRICTION FACTORS 2.4.1 Laminar Flow over Flat Plate 2.4.2 Laminar Flow in Ducts 2.4.3 Turbulent Flow in Ducts 2.4.4 Tube Banks (Single-Phase Flow) 2.4.5 Film Condensation 2.4.6 Nucleate Boiling CORRECTION FOR VARIATION OF FLUID PROPERTIES 2.5.1 2.5.2 Effect of Changing Fluid Temperature Effect Local Property Variation

2.5

2.6 2.7 2.8

REYNOLDS ANALOGY FOULING OF HEAT TRANSFER SURFACES CONCLUSIONS

NOMENCLATURE REFERENCES CHAPTER 3: PERFORMANCE EVALUATION CRITERIA FOR SINGLE-PHASE FLOW 3.1 3.2 3.3 PERFORMANCE EVALUATION CRITERIA (PEC) PEC FOR HEAT EXCHANGERS PEC FOR SINGLE-PHASE FLOW 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.3.5 Objective Function and Constraints Algebraic Formulation of the PEC Simple Surface Performance Comparison Constant Flow Rate Fixed Flow Area

55 55 56 57 57 58 59 60 60

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3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9

THERMAL RESISTANCE ON BOTH SIDES RELATIONS FOR St A N D / HEAT EXCHANGER EFFECTIVENESS EFFECT OF REDUCED EXCHANGER FLOW RATE FLOW NORMAL TO FINNED TUBE BANKS VARIANTS OF THE PEC

61 63 63 64 65 66 67 67 69 69 72 72 74

3.10 COMMENTS ON OTHER PERFORMANCE INDICATORS 3.10.1 Shah 3.10.2 Soland and Colleagues 3.11 EXERGY-BASED PEC ANALYSIS 3.12 CONCLUSIONS NOMENCLATURE REFERENCES CHAPTER 4: PERFORMANCE EVALUATION CRITERIA FOR TWO-PHASE HEAT EXCHANGERS 4.1 4.2 4.3 INTRODUCTION OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF TWO-PHASE HEAT EXCHANGERS ENHANCEMENT IN TWO-PHASE HEAT EXCHANGE SYSTEMS 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.4 4.5 Work-Consuming Systems Work-Producing Systems Heat-Actuated Systems

75 75 75 77 78 79 80 81 81 82 84 85 86 87 89 89

PEC FOR TWO-PHASE HEAT EXCHANGE SYSTEMS PEC CALCULATION METHOD 4.5.1 4.5.2 PEC Example 4.1 PEC Example 4.2

4.6

CONCLUSIONS

NOMENCLATURE REFERENCES CHAPTER 5: PLATE-AND-FIN EXTENDED SURFACES 5.1 INTRODUCTION

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5.2

OFFSET-STRIP FIN 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 5.2.5 5.2.6 5.2.7 5.2.8 Enhancement Principle PEC Example 5.1 Analytically Based Models fory and/vs. Re Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Region Correlations forj and/vs. Re Use of OSF with Liquids Effect,of Percent Fin Offset Effect of Burred Edges Heat Transfer and Friction Correlations Flow Structure in the Louver Fin Array Analytical Model for Heat Transfer and Friction PEC Example 5.2

91 91 94 95 96 97 99 99 100 100 101 103 108 109 110 115 116 118 119 122 122 124 126 129 130 130 132 133 133 134 135 136 136 137 137 139

5.3

LOUVER FIN 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.3.4

5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9

CONVEX LOUVER FIN WAVY FIN THREE-DIMENSIONAL CORRUGATED FINS PERFORATED FIN PIN FINS AND WIRE MESH VORTEX GENERATORS 5.9.1 5.9.2 Types of Vortex Generators Vortex Generators on a Plate-Fin Surface

5.10 METAL FOAM FIN 5.11 PLAIN FIN 5.11.1 PEC Example 5.3 5.12 ENTRANCE LENGTH EFFECTS 5.13 PACKINGS FOR GAS-GAS REGENERATORS 5.14 NUMERICAL SIMULATION 5.14.1 5.14.2 5.14.3 5.14.4 Offset-Strip Fins Louver Fins Wavy Channels Chevron Plates

5.14.5 Summary 5.15 CONCLUSIONS NOMENCLATURE REFERENCES

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CHAPTER 6: EXTERNALLY FINNED TUBES 6.1 6.2 INTRODUCTION THE GEOMETRIC PARAMETERS AND THE REYNOLDS NUMBER 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.4 6.3 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.4 Dimensionless Variables Definition of Reynolds Number Definition of the Friction Factor Sources of Data Effect of Fin Spacing Correlations for Staggered Tube Geometries Correlations for Inline Tube Geometries

145 145 148 148 149 150 150 150 151 153 156 156 156 158 158 158 161 162 163 165 166 167 171 171 172 174 175 175 177 178 179 180 184 184 184 186

PLAIN PLATE-FINS ON ROUND TUBES

PLAIN INDIVIDUALLY FINNED TUBES 6.4.1 6.4.2 Circular Fins with Staggered Tubes Low Integral-Fin Tubes

6.5

ENHANCED PLATE FIN GEOMETRIES WITH ROUND TUBES 6.5.1 Wavy Fin 6.5.2 Offset Strip Fins 6.5.3 Convex Louver Fins 6.5.4 LouveredFin 6.5.5 Perforated Fins 6.5.6 Mesh Fins 6.5.7 Vortex Generators ENHANCED CIRCULAR FIN GEOMETRIES 6.6.1 6.6.2 6.6.3 Illustrations of Enhanced Fin Geometries Spine or Segmented Fins Wire Loop Fins Oval vs. Circular Individually Finned Tubes Flat Extruded Aluminum Tubes with Internal Membranes Plate-and-Fin Automotive Radiators Vortex Generators on Flat or Oval Fin-Tube Geometry

6.6

6.7

OVAL AND FLAT TUBE GEOMETRIES 6.7.1 6.7.2 6.7.3 6.7.4

6.8 6.9

ROW EFFECTS STAGGERED AND INLINE LAYOUTS HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT DISTRIBUTION (PLAIN FINS) 6.9.1 6.9.2 6.9.3 Experimental Methods Plate Fin-and-Tube Measurements Circular Fin-and-Tube Measurements

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6.10 PERFORMANCE COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT GEOMETRIES 6.10.1 Geometries Compared 6.10.2 Analysis Method 6.10.3 Calculated Results 6.11 PROGRESS ON NUMERICAL SIMULATION 6.12 RECENT PATENTS ON ADVANCED FIN GEOMETRIES 6.13 HYDROPHII^C COATINGS 6.14 CONCLUSIONS NOMENCLATURE REFERENCES CHAPTER 7: INSERT DEVICES FOR SINGLE-PHASE FLOW 7.1 7.2 INTRODUCTION TWISTED TAPE INSERT 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.2.4 7.2.5 7.2.6 7.3 7.4 Laminar Flow Data Predictive Methods for Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow PEC Example 7.1 Twisted Tapes in Annuli Twisted Tapes in Rough Tubes

188 188 189 191 192 193 194 197 198 201 207 207 211 213 216 220 224 225 225 226 228 228 230 231 232 234 235 235 236 238 239 241 245 245

SEGMENTED TWISTED TAPE INSERT DISPLACED ENHANCEMENT DEVICES 7.4.1 7.4.2 7.4.3 Turbulent Flow Laminar Flow PEC Example 7.2

7.5

WIRE COIL INSERTS 7.5.1 7.5.2 Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow

7.6 7.7 7.8

EXTENDED SURFACE INSERT TANGENTIAL INJECTION DEVICES CONCLUSIONS

NOMENCLATURE REFERENCES CHAPTER 8: INTERNALLY FINNED TUBES AND ANNULI 8.1 INTRODUCTION

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8.2

INTERNALLY FINNED TUBES 8.2.1 8.2.2 8.2.3 Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow PEC Example 8.1 Spirally Fluted Tube Spirally Indented Tube

246 247 257 265 266 268 269 272 275 277 278 280 285 285 287 287 290 295 295 296 297 300 301 305 306 310 313 314 315 315 319 319 325 326 326

8.3

SPIRALLY FLUTED TUBES 8.3.1 8.3.2

8.4 8.5 8.6

ADVANCED INTERNAL FIN GEOMETRIES FINNED ANNULI CONCLUSIONS

NOMENCLATURE REFERENCES CHAPTER 9: INTEGRAL ROUGHNESS 9.1 9.2 INTRODUCTION ROUGHNESS WITH LAMINAR FLOW 9.2.1 9.2.2 9.3 Laminar Flow in Roughened Circular Tubes Laminar Flow in Roughened Flat Tubes

HEAT-MOMENTUM TRANSFER ANALOGY CORRELATION 9.3.1 9.3.2 9.3.3 Friction Similarity Law PEC Example 9.1 Heat Transfer Similarity Law

9.4

TWO-DIMENSIONAL ROUGHNESS 9.4.1 9.4.2 9.4.3 9.4.4 9.4.5 Transverse Rib Roughness Integral Helical-Rib Roughness Wire Coil Inserts Corrugated Tube Roughness PEC Example 9.2

9.5 9.6

THREE-DIMENSIONAL ROUGHNESS PRACTICAL ROUGHNESS APPLICATIONS 9.6.1 9.6.2 9.6.3 9.6.4 Tubes with Inside Roughness Rod Bundles and Annuli Rectangular Channels Outside Roughness for Cross Flow St and/vs. Reynolds Number

9.7

GENERAL PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS 9.7.1

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9.7.2 9.7.3 9.8

Other Correlating Methods Prandtl Number Dependence

328 330 333 333 334 334 334 335 336 337 339 340 346 347 350 357 357 359 360 362 366 366 366 367 368 370 370 372 375 376 378 382 382 384

HEAT TRANSFER DESIGN METHODS 9.8.1 9.8.2 Design Method 1 Design Method 2

9.9

PREFERRED ROUGHNESS TYPE AND SIZE 9.9.1 9.9.2 Roughness Type PEC Example 9.3

9.10 NUMERICAL SIMULATION 9.10.1 Predictions for Transverse-Rib Roughness 9.10.2 Effect of Rib Shape 9.10.3 The Discrete-Element Predictive Model 9.11 CONCLUSIONS NOMENCLATURE REFERENCES CHAPTER 10: FOULING ON ENHANCED SURFACES 10.1 INTRODUCTION 10.2 FOULING FUNDAMENTALS 10.2.1 Paniculate Fouling 10.3 FOULING OF GASES ON FINNED SURFACES 10.4 SHELL-SIDE FOULING OF LIQUIDS 10.4.1 Low Radial Fins 10.4.2 Axial Fins and Ribs in Annulus 10.4.3 Ribs in Rod Bundle 10.5 FOULING OF LIQUIDS IN INTERNALLY FINNED TUBES 10.6 LIQUID FOULING IN ROUGH TUBES 10.6.1 Accelerated Paniculate Fouling 10.6.2 Long-Term Fouling 10.7 LIQUID FOULING IN PLATE-FIN GEOMETRY 10.8 CORRELATIONS FOR FOULING IN ROUGH TUBES 10.9 MODELING OF FOULING IN ENHANCED TUBES 10.9.1 Example Problem 10.1 10.10 FOULING IN PLATE HEAT EXCHANGERS 10.11 CONCLUSIONS

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NOMENCLATURE REFERENCES CHAPTER 11: POOL BOILING AND THIN FILM EVAPORATION 11.1 INTRODUCTION 11.2 EARLY WORK ON ENHANCEMENT (1931-1962) 11.3 SUPPORTING FUNDAMENTAL STUDIES 11.4 TECHNIQUES EMPLOYED FOR ENHANCEMENT 11.4.1 11.4.2 11.4.3 11.4.4 11.4.5 11.4.6 11.4.7 11.4.8 11.4.9 11.4.10 11.4.11 11.4.12 11.4.13 Abrasive Treatment Open Grooves Three-Dimensional Cavities Etched Surfaces Electroplating Pierced Three-Dimensional Cover Sheets Attached Wire and Screen Promoters Nonwetting Coatings Oxide and Ceramic Coatings Porous Surfaces Structured Surfaces (Integral Roughness) Combination of Structured and Porous Surfaces Composite Surfaces

384 386 389 389 390 390 393 393 394 394 396 396 396 397 399 402 402 409 413 413 414 419 419 420 422 425 426 427 428 428 428 430 431 431 432 436 438

11.5 SINGLE-TUBE POOL BOILING TESTS OF ENHANCED SXURFACES 11.6 THEORETICAL FUNDAMENTALS 11.6.1 Liquid Superheat 11.6.2 Effect of Cavity Shape and Contact Angle on Superheat 11.6.3 Entrapment of Vapor in Cavities 11.6.4 Effect of Dissolved Gases 11.6.5 Nucleation at a Surface Cavity 11.6.6 Bubble Departure Diameter 11.6.7 Bubble Dynamics 11.7 BOILING HYSTERESIS AND ORIENTATION EFFECTS 11.7.1 Hysteresis Effects 11.7.2 Size and Orientation Effects 11.8 BOILING MECHANISM ON ENHANCED SURFACES 11.8.1 11.8.2 11.8.3 11.8.4 Basic Principles Employed Visualization of Boiling in Subsurface Tunnels Boiling Mechanism in Subsurface Tunnels Chien and Webb Parametric Boiling Studies

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11.9 PREDICTIVE METHODS FOR STRUCTURED SURFACES 11.9.1 11.9.2 11.9.3 11.9.4 11.9.5 11.9.6 11.9.7 Empirical Correlations Nakayama et al. [1980b] Model Chien and Webb Model Ramaswamy et al. Model Jiang et al. Model Other Models Evaluation of Models

442 442 442 444 448 448 450 450 451 451 451 453 453 455 457 45 8 459 460 463 464 466 473 473 474 477 477 479 480 482 482 493 494 501 501 501 506

11.10 BOILING MECHANISM ON POROUS SURFACES 11.10.1 O'Neill et al. Thin Film Concept 11.10.2 Kovalev et al. Concept 11.11 PREDICTIVE METHODS FOR POROUS SURFACES 11.11.1 O'Neill et al. Model 11.11.2 Kovalov et al. Model 11.11.3 Nishikawa et al. Correlation 11.11.4 Zhang and Zhang Correlation 11.12 CRITICAL HEAT FLUX 11.13 ENHANCEMENT OF THIN FILM EVAPORATION 11.14 CONCLUSIONS NOMENCLATURE REFERENCES CHAPTER 12: VAPOR SPACE CONDENSATION 12.1 INTRODUCTION 12.1.1 Condensation Fundamentals 12.1.2 Basic Approaches to Enhanced Film Condensation 12.2 DROPWISE CONDENSATION 12.3 SURVEY OF ENHANCEMENT METHODS 12.3.1 Coated Surfaces 12.3.2 Roughness 12.3.3 Horizontal Integral-Fin Tubes 12.3.4 Corrugated Tubes 12.3.5 Surface Tension Drainage 12.3.6 Electric Fields 12.4 SURFACE TENSION DRAINED CONDENSATION 12.4.1 Fundamentals 12.4.2 Adamek [1981] Generalized Analysis

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12.4.3 "Practical" Fin Profiles 12.4.4 Prediction for Trapezoidal Fin Shapes 12.5 HORIZONTAL INTEGRAL-FIN TUBE 12.5.1 The Beatty and Katz [1948] Model 12.5.2 Precise Surface Tension-Drained Models 12.5.3 Approximate Surface Tension-Drained Models 12.5.4 Comparison of Theory and Experiment 12.6 HORIZONTAL TUBE BANKS 12.6.1 12.6.2 12.6.3 12.6.4 Condensation with Vapor Shear Condensate Inundation without Vapor Shear Condensate Drainage Pattern Prediction of the Condensation Coefficient

509 511 517 517 518 521 523 523 523 525 528 532 533 534 535 535 538 545 545 546 546 547 552 553 554 554 555 555 559 562 566 568 568 569 569 572

12.7 CONCLUSIONS APPENDIX 12.A: THE KEDZIERSKI AND WEBB FIN PROFILE SHAPES APPENDIX 12.B: FIN EFFICIENCY IN THE FLOODED REGION NOMENCLATURE REFERENCES CHAPTER 13: CONVECTIVE VAPORIZATION 13.1 INTRODUCTION 13.2 FUNDAMENTALS 13.2.1 13.2.2 13.2.3 13.2.4 13.2.5 13.2.6 13.3.1 13.3.2 13.3.3 13.3.4 13.3.5 13.3.6 Flow Patterns Convective Vaporization in Tubes Two-Phase Pressure Drop Effect of Flow Orientation on Flow Pattern Convective Vaporization in Tube Bundles Critical Heat Flux Internal Fins Swirl Flow Devices Roughness Coated Surfaces Perforated Foil Inserts Porous Media

13.3 ENHANCEMENT TECHNIQUES IN TUBES

13.3.7 Coiled Tubes and Return Bends 13.4 THE MICROFIN TUBE 13.4.1 Early Work on the Microfin Tube

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13.4.2 Recent Work on the Microfin Tube 13.4.3 Special Microfin Geometries 13.4.4 Microfin Vaporization Data 13.5 MINICHANNELS 13.6 CRITICAL HEAT FLUX (CHF) 13.6.1 13.6.2 13.6.3 13.6.4 13.7.1 13.7.2 13.7.3 13.7.4 13.7.5 13.8.1 13.8.2 13.8.3 13.8.4 13.8.5 Twisted Tape Grooved Tubes Corrugated Tubes Mesh Inserts High Internal Fins Microfins Twisted Tape Inserts Corrugated Tubes Porous Coatings Convective Effects in Tube Bundles Tube Bundle Convective Vaporization Data Effect of Spacing between Tubes Convective Vaporization Models Starting Hysteresis in Tube Bundles

576 578 580 582 586 587 588 588 588 589 589 590 592 592 592 592 593 596 599 600 601 602 604 604 608 609 610 612 621 621 622 622 626 627 629 629 630

13.7 PREDICTIVE METHODS FOR IN-TUBE FLOW

13.8 TUBE BUNDLES

13.9 PLATE-FIN HEAT EXCHANGERS 13.10 THIN FILM EVAPORATION 13.10.1 Horizontal Tubes 13.10.2 Vertical Tubes 13.11 CONCLUSIONS NOMENCLATURE REFERENCES CHAPTER 14: CONVECTIVE CONDENSATION 14.1 INTRODUCTION 14.2 FORCED CONDENSATION INSIDE TUBES 14.2.1 14.2.2 14.2.3 14.2.4 14.2.5 Internally Finned Geometry Twisted-Tape Inserts Roughness Wire Coil Inserts Coiled Tubes and Return Bends

14.3 MICROFIN TUBE

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14.3.1 14.3.2 14.3.3 14.3.4

Microfin Geometry Details Optimization of Internal Geometry Condensation Mechanism in Microfin Tubes Convective Condensation in Special Microfin Geometries

632 633 636 640 641 643 646 649 649 651 651 652 653 654 654 657 658 659 665 665 667 669 670 671 672 672 672 675 677 677 679 680 680 682 682 683 683

14.4 FLAT TUBE AUTOMOTIVE CONDENSERS 14.4.1 Condensation Data for Flat, Extruded Tubes 14.4.2 Other Predictive Methods of Condensation in Flat Tubes 14.5 PLATE-TYPE HEAT EXCHANGERS 14.6 NONCONDENSIBLE GASES 14.7 PREDICTIVE METHODS FOR CIRCULAR TUBES 14.7.1 14.7.2 14.7.3 14.7.4 High Internal Fins Wire Loop Internal Fins Twisted Tapes Roughness

14.7.5 Microfins 14.8 CONCLUSIONS NOMENCLATURE REFERENCES CHAPTER 15: ENHANCEMENT USING ELECTRIC FIELDS * 15.1 INTRODUCTION 15.2 ELECTRODE DESIGN AND PLACEMENT 15.3 SINGLE-PHASE FLUIDS 15.3.1 Enhancement on Gas Flow 15.3.2 Enhancement on Liquid Flow 15.3.3 Numerical Studies 15.4 CONDENSATION 15.4.1 Fundamental Understanding 15.4.2 Vapor Space Condensation 15.4.3 In-Tube Condensation 15.4.4 Falling Film Evaporation 15.4.5 Correlations 15.5 BOILING 15.5.1 15.5.2 15.5.3 15.5.4 15.5.5 Fundamental Understanding Pool Boiling Convective Vaporization Critical Heat Flux Correlations

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15.6 CONCLUSIONS NOMENCLATURE REFERENCES CHAPTER 16: SIMULTANEOUS HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 16.1 INTRODUCTION 16.2 MASS TRANIJFER RESISTANCE IN THE GAS PHASE 16.2.1 Condensation with Noncondensible Gases 16.2.2 Evaporation into Air 16.2.3 Dehumidifying Finned-Tube Heat Exchangers 16.2.4 Water Film Enhancement of Finned-Tube Exchanger 16.3 CONTROLLING RESISTANCE IN LIQUID PHASE 16.4 SIGNIFICANT RESISTANCE IN BOTH PHASES 16.5 CONCLUSIONS NOMENCLATURE REFERENCES CHAPTER 17: ADDITIVES FOR GASES AND LIQUIDS 17.1 INTRODUCTION 17.2 ADDITIVES FOR SINGLE-PHASE LIQUIDS 17.2.1 17.2.2 17.2.3 17.2.4 Solid Particles PEC Example 17.1 Gas Bubbles Suspensions in Dilute Polymer and Surfactant Solutions

684 684 685 689 689 690 690 692 694 695 699 702 702 703 704 707 707 707 707 710 710 710 712 712 715 715 718 719 719 720 723 723 725

17.3 ADDITIVES FOR SINGLE-PHASE GASES 17.3.1 Solid Additives 17.3.2 Liquid Additives 17.4 ADDITIVES FOR BOILING 17.5 ADDITIVES FOR CONDENSATION AND ABSORPTION 17.6 CONCLUSIONS NOMENCLATURE REFERENCES CHAPTER 18: MICROCHANNELS 18.1 INTRODUCTION 18.2 FRICTION IN SINGLE MICROCHANNELS

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18.3 FRICTION IN A SINGLE CHANNEL VS. MULTICHANNELS 18.4 SINGLE-PHASE HEAT TRANSFER IN MICROCHANNELS 18.4.1 Single Channel Flow 18.4.2 Heat Transfer in Multiple Microchannels 18.5 MANIFOLD SELECTION AND DESIGN 18.5.1 Single-Phase Flow 18.5.2 Two-Phase Flow 18.6 NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF FLOW IN MANIFOLDS 18.7 TWO-PHASE HEAT TRANSFER IN MICROCHANNELS 18.8 CONCLUSIONS NOMENCLATURE REFERENCES CHAPTER 19: ELECTRONIC COOLING HEAT TRANSFER 19.1 INTRODUCTION 19.2 COMPONENT THERMAL RESISTANCES 19.3 LIMITS ON DIRECT HEAT REMOVAL WITH AIR-COOLING 19.3.1 PEC Example 19.1, Enhanced Fin Geometry Heat Sink 19.4 SECOND GENERATION IndHR DEVICES FOR HEAT REMOVAL AT HOT SOURCE 19.4.1 19.4.2 19.4.3 19.4.4 19.4.5 19.4.6 19.5.1 19.5.2 19.5.3 19.5.4 Single-Phase Fluids Two-Phase Fluids Heat Pipe Nucleate Boiling Forced Convection Vaporization Spray Cooling Jet Impingement/Spray Cooling Devices Single-Phase MicroChannel Cooling Two-Phase MicroChannel Cooling Enhanced Two-Phase Forced Convection Cooling

727 731 731 733 733 734 736 737 738 741 742 743 747 747 748 750 753 754 754 755 756 756 760 761 761 761 765 765 767 767 767 770 771 771

19.5 DISCUSSION OF ADVANCED HEAT REMOVAL CONCEPTS

19.6 REMOTE HEAT-EXCHANGERS FOR IndHR 19.6.1 Air-Cooled Ambient Heat Exchangers 19.6.2 Condensing Surfaces 19.6.3 Design for Multiple Heat Sources 19.7 SYSTEM PERFORMANCE FOR THE IndHR SYSTEM

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19.8 CONCLUSIONS NOMENCLATURE REFERENCES PROBLEM SUPPLEMENT INDEX

772 772 773 775 789