MAP PROJECTION AND DATA INPUT

R. Sudharsanan, (Ph.D), M.E., A.M.I.E. GIS DEFINITION: A set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transforming, and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purposes. : Burrough (1986). The computer system, the software, spatial data, data management and analysis procedures and the people to operate GIS jointly forms the components of GIS. SPATIAL DATA: The spatial data are characterized by position, connections with other features and details of non-spatial characteristics. The traditional method for storing, analyzing and presenting spatial data is the map. The map is of fundamental importance in GIS as a source of data, a structure for storing data and a device for analysis and display. Maps take many different forms at different scales. If map represents a special purpose- then it is called as thematic map whereas topographic map consists of diverse set of data on different themes. SPATIAL ENTITIES: Maps have used symbols to represent real-world features. The points, lines and areas are known as basic spatial entities building blocks of GIS. Points: Points are used to represent geographical features that are too small to be represented as areas. It can be represented with or without z-value i.e. either (x,y,z) or (x,y). Lines: Lines are used to represent features that are linear in nature. A line is simply an ordered set of points. It is a string of (x,y) co-ordinates joined together in order. Areas: Areas are represented by a closed set of lines and are used to define geographical features. Area entities are often referred as polygon. MAP PROJECTIONS: The location of spatial entities, in two dimensions, is the important task for the GIS analyst. The method by which the world is laid flat is to use a map projection. Map projection transfers the spherical Earth onto a two-dimensional surface. In doing so, they approximate the true shape of the Earth. Based on the projection method chosen, the error may be introduced in the spatial data. Map projections are sets of mathematical models which transform spherical coordinates (i.e.latitude and longitude) to planar coordinates (x and y). In the process, data

which actually lie on a sphere are projected onto a flat plane or a surface and converted to a planar section without stretching. Positions on a globe are measured by angles (i.e. longitude & latitude) rather than X, Y (i.e. Cartesian) coordinates. The longitude is measured as the number of degrees from the prime meridian, and the latitude is measured as the number of degrees from the equator. The specific point on the surface of the earth is specified by the longitude and latitude of it. The map projection can be explained by means of glass sphere marked with grid lines is kept in front of a light sources and the way in which sphere projected outward. Three types of developable surface such as plane, cone, or cylinder are placed outside the sphere in order to receive the shadows. When the surface is opened the geographic features are displayed a flat plane.

Fig. Latitude & Longitude

Fig. Sphere with shadow

Types of Map Projection: The projection surfaces form the basic types of projections namely: (i) Conical Projection; (ii) Cylindrical Projection; (iii) Azimuthal Projection. (i) Conical Projection: The light source is kept in a tepee analogy. Standard parallels are where the cone touches or slices through the globe. The central meridian is opposite the edge where the cone is sliced open. Conic projections are used frequently for mapping large areas. The scale for the most part is preserved. The limitations of this method are the area is distorted and distance is very much distorted towards the bottom of the image.

Fig. Conical Projection

(ii) Cylindrical Projection: The light in a circular room analogy is adopted. In this method, the surface of the earth is projected onto a cylinder which encompasses the globe. This is very much suitable for making maps of an area which have only a small extent in longitude. The most common cylindrical projection is the Mercator projection, which is the basis of the UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) system.

Fig. Cylindrical Projection The advantages are: It gives continuous picture of the earth, countries near the equator in the true relative positions and most part of the area is preserved. At the same time distance increases between countries located towards top and bottom of image and the view of poles are much distorted are the limitations. (iii) Azimuthal Projection: This method adopts light in a square room with flat walls analogy. This method preserves most part of distance. But only a part of the earths surface is visible. The view will be of half the globe and distortion will occur at all four edges.

Fig. Azimuthal Projection

Polyconic Projection: A multiple number of cones draped over the mode of the earth is known as polyconic projection. Each of these cones is tangent to its corresponding latitude, thereby making each parallel a standard parallel. Half of these cones have their apexes over the North Pole while the other halves have apexes over South Pole. This projection minimizes all distortions. The scale of the map will be true along the central meridian and along each parallel. Survey of Indias topographical maps produced using polyconic projection. Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM): A particular subset of the transverse Mercator is the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM). In the UTM system, the globe is divided into 60 zones between 84 S and 84 N, most of which are 6 wide. Each UTM zone has its own central meridian and spans 3 west and 3 east from the center of the zone. Note that the position of the cylinder developable surface is positioned at a different place around the globe for each zone. X- and Ycoordinates are in meters by convention. For zones in the northern hemisphere, the X-origin is a place 5,00,000 m west of the central meridian, and the Y-origin is the Equator. The false easting is used to eliminate negative coordinates. For zones in the southern hemisphere, the X origin is also 5,00,000 m west of the central meridian, but the Y-origin is the South Pole.

Fig. UTM Zone Layout

Fig. UTM Zone locations and grid designations METHODS OF DATA INPUT Data, in analogue or digital form need to be encoded to be compatible with the GIS being used. All data in analogue form need to be converted to digital from before they can be input into GIS. Reformatting or conversion may also be required after analogue data have been converted to digital form. Four methods are widely used: 1. Keyboard entry 3. Automatic digitizing 2. Manual digitizing 4. Scanning (i) Keyboard Entry Keyboard entry, often referred to as key coding, is the entry of data into a file at a computer terminal. This technique is used for attribute data that are only available on paper. (ii)Manual Digitizing The most common method of encoding spatial feature from paper maps is manual digitizing. It is an appropriate technique when a selection of features is required from a paper map. Manual digitizing requires a table digitizer that is linked to a computer workstation. Point mode or stream mode: In point mode the user begins digitizing each line segment with a start node, records each change in direction of the line with a digitized point and finishes the segment with an end node. The user must choose a sensible number of points to represent the curve. Some digitizing packages allow the user to record smooth curves as mathematically defined splines or Bezier curves. In stream mode the digitizer is set up to record points according to a stated time interval or on a distance basis. The speed at which the cursor is moved along the line determines the number of points recorded. The line is more complex and the cursor needs to be moved more slowly and with more care, a greater number of points will be recorded. The choice between point mode and stream mode digitizing is largely a matter of personal preference. Stream mode digitizing requires more skill, more points, and larger files. The accuracy of data generated by this method of encoding is dependent on many factors, including the scale and resolution of the source map, and the quality of the equipment and software being used. (iii) Automatic Digitizing & Scanning:

Scanning is an appropriate method of data encoding when raster data are required. A scanning is a piece of hardware for converting an analogue source document into digital raster format transmitted or reflected light. Small flat-bed scanners, looking a little like photocopiers. High-quality and largeformat scanners require the source document to be placed on a rotating drum, and a sensor moves along the axis of rotation. The possibility of optical distortion takes place when using flat-bed scanners. The automatic scanning of unwanted information (for example, hard-drawn annotations, and folds in maps or coffee stains) occurs. The selection of appropriate scanning tolerance to ensure important data is encoded, and background data ignored. The format of files produced and the input of data to GIS software. The accuracy of scanned output data depends on the quality of the scanner, the quality of the image-processing software used to process the scanned data, and the quality (and complexity) of the source document. Resolution affects the quality, and quantity, of output data. The higher the resolution, the larger the volumes of data produced. Automatic line follower this encoding method might be appropriate where digital versions of clear, distinctive lines on a map are required. The method mimics manual digitizing and uses a laser- and light- sensitive device to follow the lines on the map. DATA EDITING Data may include errors derived from the original source. When the spatial data is obtained from the other sources the following questions are to be asked. They are: What data are available? What will the data cost? On what media will the data be supplied? What format will the data be in? During the encoding process there may be errors in co-ordinate data as well as inaccuracies and uncertainty in attribute data. The process is known as data editing or clearing. Data editing can be likened to the filter in the fuel tank. Three topics are covered here: detection and correction of errors; re-projection, transformation and generalization; and edge matching and rubber sheeting. DETECTING AND CORRECTING ERRORS Errors in the source data; errors introduced during encoding; and errors propagated during data transfer and conversion. Errors in source data may be difficult to identify. During data transfer, conversion of data between different formats required by different packages may lead to a loss of data. Errors in attribute data are relatively easy to spot and may be identified using manual comparison with the original data.

METHODS OF ATTRIBUTE DATA CHECKING 1. Impossible values

Extreme values Internal consistency Scattergrams Trend surface Errors in spatial data are often more difficult to identify and correct than errors in attribute data. Depending on the data model being used (vector or raster) and the method of capture. Common errors in spatial data Error Description Missing entities Missing points, lines or boundary segments Duplicate entities Mislocated entities Missing labels Duplicate labels Artifacts of digitizing Noise Points, lines or boundary segments that have been digitized twice Points, lines or boundary segments digitized in the wrong place Unidentified polygons Two or more identification labels for the same polygon Undershoots, overshoots, wrongly placed nodes, loops and spikes Irrelevant data entered during digitizing, scanning or data transfer

2. 3. 4. 5.

RE-PROJECTION, TRANSFORMATION AND GENERALIZATION Once spatial and attribute data have been encoded and edited, it may be necessary to process the data geometrically in order to provide a common framework or reference. Data derived from maps drawn on different projections will need to be converted to a common projection system before they can be combined or analyzed. Data derived from different source may also be referenced using different co-ordinate systems. Data may be derived from maps of different scales. The accuracy of the output from a GIS analysis can only be as good as the worst input data. Thus, if source maps of widely differing scales are to be used together, data derived from large-scale mapping should be generalized to be comparable with the data derived from smaller-scale maps. The joining process is known as edge matching and involves three basic steps. Boundary, for use as a vector data layer, topology must be rebuilt as new lines redundant map sheet boundary lines are deleted or dissolved. Rubber sheeting involves stretching the map in various directions as if it were drawn on a rubber sheet. Objects on the map that are accurately placed are tacked down and kept still while other that are in the wrong location or have fit with the control points. These control points are fixed features that may be easily identified on the ground and on the image. MEASUREMENTS IN GIS LENGTHS, PERIMETERS AND AREAS Calculating lengths, perimeters and areas is a common application of GIS. Measuring the length of a ski piste from a digital map is a relatively straightforward task. All measurements from a GIS will be an approximation, since vector data are made up of straight line segments (even lines which appear as curves on the screen are stored as a collection of short straight line segments), and all raster entities are approximated using a grid cell representation.

In a raster GIS the shortest path, or Euclidean distance, is calculated by drawing a straight line between the end points of a line, and creating a right-angled triangle so that Pythagorean geometry can be used. A distance can be calculated is the distance along raster cell sides from one point to the other. As it is impossible to pass diagonally through a block, you have to traverse the sides third method proximity concentric equidistant zones are established around the start point A. The resulting image shows the shortest straight line distance from every point on the map to the location of interest. Perimeter measurement in a raster GIS, the number of cell sides that make up the boundary of a feature is multiplied by the known resolution of the raster grid. For area calculations, the number of cells a feature occupies is multiplied by the known area of an individual grid cell. Area and perimeter calculations in raster data can be affected by the origin and orientation of the raster grid and they can be avoided by orientation of grids with northsouth alignment and use of consistent origins. Vector GIS distances are measured using Pythagorass theorem to obtain the Euclidean distance. Perimeter is built up of the sum of straight line lengths, and areas are calculated by totaling the areas of simple geometric shapes formed by subdividing the feature of interest. In vector GIS, length, perimeter and area database, so these need to be calculated only once and then are permanently saved.