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Paper 11

Coal and Oil Sands

An experimental investigation into the trapping model core pillars with reinforced y ash composites
M.K. Mishra, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela, India, and U.M.R. Karanam, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India ABSTRACT Relative to slender pillars, larger size pillars exhibit improved strata control. Fly ash, though traditionally treated as a waste product, is emerging as an alternate engineering material. This paper deals with the development of a strong y ash composite material with additives. The geotechnical properties of this y ash composite were determined and used to trap model core pillars, which resemble squat pillars. The trapped samples were tested under uni-axial loading in the laboratory and the results showed higher load-bearing capacity of the model core pillars. The reinforced y ash composites provide lateral connement and exhibit improved post- failure behaviour of the model cores.

KEYWORDS Fly ash composite materials, Model core pillar trapping, Lateral connement, Rock mechanics

INTRODUCTION Pillar design is an important aspect of room-andpillar methods of extraction because it allows for maximum recovery while maintaining the stability of the mine. The popular ultimate strength approach for pillar design dictates that failure occurs after the load reaches its ultimate strength (i.e. the load-bearing capacity of a pillar reduces to zero the moment its ultimate strength is exceeded). Stresses in a pillar are related to (a) overburden pressure, (b) development of entries, (c) extraction of coal pillar in adjoining area, including the load due to over-riding of pillars and (d) dynamic loading due to blasting, roof falls, tectonic stresses, etc. However, ever-increasing mining depths pose some serious challenges to the conventional pillar design methodology. With the challenge of discovering new economic deposits, efforts have been made to extract as much mineral/coal as possible. At times these measures call for completely knocking out some support pillars or reducing their dimension (Tesarik, Seyman, Yanske, & McKibbin, 1985). Pillar failure affects the efficiency of mining operations, the economic consequence of which can be serious, especially for capital-intensive longwall mining or highly mechanized room-and-pillar mining. To increase production and consequently improve mine economics, many attempts have been made to reduce the pillar sizes by increasing pillar strength articially without compromising mine stability. Sand stowing in coal mines and backlling of stopes in hardrock mines have been practiced for a long time by many mines around the world to address ground
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control problems, increase mine system stability and increase productivity. Fly ash is emerging as an alternate material for many engineering applications, as described elsewhere (Kumar, Ahuja, Dattatryulu, Bhaskar Rao, Ghosh, & Sharma, 2003; Polariski, 1993). The current study experimentally investigates the development of a stronger y ash composite and its reinforcement with wire mesh. The potential of the y ash composite for altering the behaviour of model core pillars is examined. LABORATORY EXPERIMENTATION Model core pillars (57 mm in diameter and 200 mm in length) were prepared from a sand and cement mixture with adequate care to maintain uniformity in all samples; the cement-to-sand ratio was maintained as shown in Table 1. Fly ash composite from untreated y ash, obtained from a local thermal power plant furnace, lime and gypsum were also preTable 1. Different properties of model core pillars Cement:Sand Cement:Water Youngs Modulus of Elasticity Poissons Ratio Uniaxial compressive strength Angle of internal friction , Cohesion, MPa Density, kg/m3 1:1 1:0.45 3,227 MPa 0.22 38.79 MPa 41 7.42 2109 1:1.5 1:0.45 2,869 MPa 0.21 33.5 MPa 40.6 6.09 2131 1:1.75 1:0.45 2,678 MPa 0.20 29.58 MPa 40.1 5.23 2145 1:2 1:0.45 2,536 MPa 0.19 26.65 MPa 39.5 4.63 2154 1:2.5 1:0.45 2,322 MPa 0.18 23.12 MPa 38.9 3.94 2162

Coal and Oil Sands

Table 2. Engineering properties of y ash composite material (L= Lime %; G =Gypsum %) Parameters 28 Days 5.4579 Compressive strength MPa 293.2 Youngs Modulus, E MPa Poissons ratio, 0.35 Cohesion, C 1.09 MPa 26 Angle of internal friction, Slake durability 1st cycle 96.15 2nd cycle 82.3 Index (%) 1,812.8 Normalized dry density 20.99% Normalized water content 15% L - O% G 56 Days 8.5144 MPa 320.3 MPa 0.35 1.16 MPa 27.7 96.9 84.2 15% L - 5% G 28 Days 56 Days 8.0778 MPa 316.9 MPa 0.35 1.17 MPa 29.6 97.1 86.2 1,779.8 21.98% 11.7892 MPa 349.2 MPa 0.35 1.26 MPa 30.2 97.8 87.1 20% L - O% G 28 Days 56 Days 6.8770 MPa 304.5 MPa 0.35 1.40 MPa 30.0 96.5 85.3 1,832.5 21.64% 10.0426 MPa 331.2 MPa 0.35 1.54 MPa 31.2 97.4 86.5 20% L - 5% G 28 Days 56 Days 8.5144 MPa 321.2 MPa 0.35 1.43 MPa 30.2 98.16 92.1 1790.3 22.09% 12.225 MPa 348.7 MPa 0.35 1.59 MPa 31.6 99 93

pared; the engineering properties of the composite are shown in Table 2. Model core pillars (100 mm in diameter and 200 mm in height) were then trapped with the prepared y ash composite. Commercially available 0.9 mm thick GI-type wire mesh (2 mm/cm2, 122 Kgf/cm2 tensile strength and 7.17*105 Kgf/cm2 elasticity) was used to provide reinforcement. The nal trapped model core pillars were cured for 28 and 56 days before they were tested under uni-axial compressive loading. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The physico-chemical characteristics of y ash are shown in Tables 3 and 4, and the grain size distribution is shown in Figure 1. The geotechnical properties of the composite materials are shown in Table 2. The cement and sand ratios were maintained as shown in Table 1, along with their respective engineering properties. EFFECT OF CURING PERIOD Model core pillars were trapped with reinforced y ash composites and tested at 28 and then at 56 days of curing. From the experimental results it was
Table 3. Chemical characteristics of y ash Constituents Carbon Volatile matter Fe2O3 MgO Al2O3 SiO2 Percentage 2.10% 0.147 8.83% 0.84% 27.73% 5.89% Constituents P2O5 SO3 K2O CaO Na2 TiO2 Percentage 0.17% 0.24% 0.79% 1.11% 0.14% 2.09%

observed that each type of y ash composite inuenced the failure strength of the model core pillar. The percentage of increase in failure strength of trapped model core pillars varied with the type of composite, the curing period and the ratio of the annular thickness of ll area to model core pillar radius (Tf = the thickness of annular ll area and Tc = the radius of the model core pillar). The percentage increase in the ultimate bearing capacity for the model core pillar of ratio 1:1 (cement-to-sand) varied between 4% and 15% at 28 days of curing for different y ash composites. The corresponding variation in gain strength for similar core samples of the same cement-to-water ratio ranged from 8 to 27% at 56 days of curing. It was observed that the load-bearing capacities of trapped model core pillars improved with a longer curing period. Relative to composite and the curingsamples were of increase in strength at 56 200 high. the 28-day rapped period, the 100 days was 3.8% Commercially available 9for Tf / Tc = 0.75 when trapped with thick GI mm/cm , Kgf/cm reinforced y ash composite containing only 15% lime. 7.17*105 u However, when 5% gypsum was added, the strength increase was 7%. The maximum 56increase was The 28 observed for the ratio of Tf / Tc = 1.62 in the y ash uniaxial composite containing 20% lime and 5% gypsum with 3.0 model core pillars of type 1:2.5. The increased perResults and Discussion: centages ranged from 10 to 12% for various Tf / Tc ratios and different fly ash composites. It was concluded size a sufficient curing period is required for that the fly ash composites to achieve maximum uniaxial 3. compressive strength (UCS).

Table 4. Physical characteristics of y ash Parameters Colour Dry density (kg/m3) Optimum moisture content (%) Permeability (m/sec.) Liquid limit (%) Plastic limit (%) Light grey 1,380 38.7 (3.53.7) * 10-6 40.89 Non-plastic

Figure Untreated Fig. 1. Grain size analysis of Sizeuntreated y ash. the Analysis

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CIM Bulletin I Vol. 101, N 1109

Coal and Oil Sands

The addition of 5% gypsum improved the percentage gain in the failure strength at 28 days of curing. In the case of the model core pillar with a cement-to-sand ratio of 1:1, with Tf / Tc = 0.75 and with 15% lime, the strength increased by 2.9% at 28 days of curing. In contrast, when the lime percentage was increased 20%, the overall increase in the strength was 1.4% for the same curing time. The strength gain with gypsum was higher at 28 days of curing compared to the strength values at 56 days curing. A maximum strength gain of about 14% was achieved with a model core pillar cement-to-sand ratio of 1:2.5 for y ash composite containing 15% lime and 5% gypsum, as well as for y ash composite material with only 20% lime content. It was observed that, beyond an optimum percentage, the addition of gypsum as well as lime did not show a linear increase in the strength gain percentage of the trapped pillar, though the strength increased in absolute terms. FAILURE AND POST-FAILURE PROFILE OF TRAPPED MODEL CORE PILLARS The trapped model core pillars continued to take load even after the core pillar reached its peak strength and failed. It was observed that compared to the unconned model core pillar, there was a substantial increase in the failure load as well as in the post-failure load-bearing capacity of each model core pillar. Compared to the unconned core, the trapped model core pillar showed some marginal axial deformation change due to the connement provided by y ash composites. Failure of the core samples occurred predominantly along a shear plane. The unconned model core pillar under uni-axial compressive loading split vertically due to tensile forces. This splitting was due to the brittle nature of the unconned cores, which exhibited no post failure prole as they lost all their strength soon after failure. When the same sample was trapped with reinforced y ash composite material, the core failed along a shear plane. The moment the wire rope snapped, the developed radial cracks in the y ash composite material widened and the trapped pillar showed punch shear type behaviour. When the same model core pillar was trapped with an even higher thickness of annular lling area (i.e. Tf / Tc > 7.0), the failure mode resembled a typical tri-axial testing (Figs. 3 to 6). This nding indicates that y ash composite material offers radial connement stresses which induce a model core pillar to change from a brittle failure pattern to a ductile pattern within the elastic range. However, because the elasticity of the y ash composite material was lower than that of the core, it only improved the bearing strength of the core sample. It was observed that the model core pillars exhibited a tendency to strain soften (i.e. to increase in deformation while decreasing in load bearing capacity). With continued axial loading after the specimen reached its peak strength, the core pillar further
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slipped along the fracture plane which, in turn, pushed the y ash composite out. The adhesion between the wire mesh and the y ash composite was very strong. There were no instances of wire mesh cutting into the composites. The fragmented y ash composites were resisted by the tensile strength of the wire mesh and provided local connement to the model core pillars. Thus, in line with Wilsons (1972) and Prices (1979) writings, the strength of the trapped pillar was reduced to a residual level equivalent to the frictional resistance of the interlocking broken y ash composites. The trapped model core pillars exhibited substantial strength, followed by an initial sharp and moderate drop in load-bearing capacity after failure. The residual strength for model core pillars of type 1:1 varied between 10 and 20% of their respective peak load bearing capacities. In contrast, the unconned model core crushed immediately after its peak failure strength was reached and showed no post failure path of the core. Figures 3 through 6 show the failure as well as post failure prole of the load-bearing capacity of some trapped model core pillars and the corresponding unconned model core pillars. Similar results were also observed for other types of model core pillar types, though with different strength magnitudes and post failure proles. CONCLUSION Loose sand as a backll material merely occupies the underground space created by mining operation and past studies have indicated that no lateral stresses develop because sand lling assists the stability of the opening (Srivastava, 1995). In light of this observation, one of the objectives of the current investigation was to study both the physical attributes as well as the engineering properties of the developed y ash composite material as an alternative to sand as a backlling material. With the promise of paste backll technology, the transportation of y ash is not a serious economic handicap. Fly ash composite developed with the addition of lime and gypsum and reinforced with wire mesh significantly contributes to strength characteristics.

Fig. 2. Tri-axial failure pattern observed for the core inside.

Figure 3: Tri-axial Conclusion:

Pattern observed for the Core Inside

Figures

Coal and Oil Sands


Similar

At Tf/Tc = 0.75 at 56 Days curing At Tf/Tc = 0.75 at 28 Days curing

Model Core 15 LG Fig. 3. Failure and post-failure behaviour of trapped model core pillars: Model core 1:1 type with y ash composite material of 15 %L-0 %G.

Fig. 4. Failure and post-failure behaviour of trapped model core pillars: Model core 1:1 type with y ash composite material of 15 %L-0 %G.

Figure 2(b): Model Core 1:1 Type with

f 15 %L-0

Figure 2(b): Model Core 1:1 Type with

f 15 %L-0

At Tf/Tc = 1.34 at 28 Days curing


At Tf/Tc = 1.34 at 56 Days curing

2(c)

2(c) Fig. 5. Failure and post-failure behaviour of trapped model core pillars: Model core 1:1 type with y ash composite material of 15%L-0%G.

Figure 2 post-failure behaviour of trapped of 15 %L- pillars: Type with Fig. 6. Failure and(d): Model Core model core G Model core 1:1 type with y ash composite material of 15 %L-0 %G. s a) and Post behaviour

Fly ash composite also improves the load-bearing capacity and the post failure behaviour of model core pillars. A maximum gain in strength is observed for the weakest core types. Unlike the brittle failure exhibited by unconfined core pillars, confined fly ash composites make the core model pillar ductile and show signs of residual load even after failure. The trapped pillars fail gradually, rather than collapsing suddenly, soon after the peak load (Figs. 3 to 6). In the literature, this residual load has been referred to as a post-critical load (Pytel, 2003), which is only a portion of the maximum load. Because the post-critical load depends upon the geometry of the pillar, trapping the pillar increases the magnitude of the pillars post-critical strength. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors acknowledge the nancial assistance received from the Central Scientic Research Station (CSIR), New-Delhi, under the Extra Mural Research

(EMR) fund (reference TMP 22(0341)/02/EMR-II) dated March 28, 2002. Paper reviewed and approved for publication by the Coal and Oil Sands Society of CIM.
Manoj Ku Mishra graduated with a B.Sc. degree in mining engineering from Regional Engineering College, Rourkela, in 1985. He obtained his M.Sc. and PhD degrees from Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Illinois, and the Indian Institute of Technology, Khar,agpur, in 1992 and 2004, respectively. He has been teaching and researching since 1993 and, currently, is an assistant professor in the Department of Mining Engineering at the National Institute of Technology, Rourkela. His research interests are rock mechanics, ground control and gainful application of y ash. U.M. Rao Karanam is a professor at the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur. He obtained his B.Sc. in mining engineering in 1983 and worked for three years in opencast and underground hard rock mines. He obtained his M.Sc. in mine planning and designing in 1987, specializing in rock mechanics, and has a PhD in 1994. He has been teaching and researching since 1987, working at various levels in the Department of Mining Engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur. He is also a visiting professor at CNU, South Korea.

CIM Bulletin I Vol. 101, N 1109

Coal and Oil Sands

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