Power Quality Effects on the Measurement of Reactive Power in Three-Phase Power Systems in the Light of the IEEE Standard

1459-2000.
Vicente Len-Martnez, Joaqun Montaana-Romeu, Jos Giner-Garca, Antonio Cazorla-Navarro, Jos Roger-Folch
Electrical Engineering Department Polytechnic University of Valencia Valencia, Spain vleon@die.upv.es Abstract Reactive power is a very important quantity in
electric power systems since it affects the efficiency of these systems. Also, capacitive loads can produce over-voltages in electric transformers by Ferranti effect, which produces bad power quality, so it is necessary to measure the reactive power correctly. In this paper reactive phenomena in three-phase power systems with unbalanced voltages are expressed and measured in the light of the IEEE Std 1459-2000. For analyzing the reactive phenomena the positive-sequence fundamental frequency instantaneous reactive power is used. By comparing the expressions of this instantaneous power in three-phase systems with unbalanced voltages with those corresponding to balanced voltages, the reactive phenomenon due to the unbalances is obtained by separating of the traditional reactive power yield by the reactive loads in electric power systems. These reactive phenomena in three-phase power systems are formulated in the same way as Steinmetz defined reactive power in single-phase systems, by adding the amplitudes of each phase of its respective instantaneous reactive power. In the paper, this new formulation of the reactive phenomena has been applied on actual industrial and urban electric installations to obtain values of these reactive powers. Data registered express the following conclusions: a) reactive power is divided into two components: due to the reactive loads and caused by the unbalances, b) both reactive components can be inductive or capacitive quantities and, therefore, can be added or compensated, c) reactive power caused by the unbalances can

Manuel A. Graa-Lpez
Electrical Engineering Department A Corua University Ferrol, Spain

exist even though in resistive systems, when there are unbalances at sources and at loads in the same time and, generally, when there is not any symmetry in the system. Keywords: Reactive power, power quality, unbalanced systems, measuring instruments.

I.

INTRODUCTION

Reactive power is a very important quantity in electric power systems since affects to the efficiency of these systems and, moreover, it can yield over-voltages in electric transformers which reduce the power quality. Some causes of the reactive phenomena, such as the reactances (coils and capacitors) and electronic controlled converters, are extensively known for a long time but other causes such as the unbalances in power systems are not so well known. Reactive phenomenon in single-phase sinusoidal electric systems was formulated by C.P. Steinmetz [1] by applying the expression of instantaneous power. Also, Steinmetz defined the reactive power (Q) as the amplitude of the instantaneous reactive power, as it is well-known. Steinmetzs theory is actually in due course and is included in the IEEE Standard 1459-2000. However, this theory has not been well applied when the excitation voltages are distorted and/or unbalanced [2]. So, in such conditions, some phenomena were incorrectly

explained and quantified [3]. One of those phenomena is the reactive phenomenon in unbalanced power systems. A great number of theories have been established for explaining the reactive phenomena in unbalanced and/or distorted three-phase power systems. Some most significant of these theories have been developed in papers [4,5,6,7] and discussed in another ones [14], but in our opinion their reactive powers are wrong quantities since have terms corresponding to the unbalance and distortion phenomena. We think Steinmetzs theory can be still applied to explain the working of any power system. Unifying theory [8,9], which is based on Steinmetzs theory, allows to formulate all the different phenomena also starting off the instantaneous power. Reactive power obtained in this way has the same formulation that Emanuels positive-sequence reactive power expressed in the IEEE Standard 1459-2000 [10] and in other references [11,12] and it has been able to analyze the reactive phenomenon caused by the unbalances in three-phase power systems. Existence of this phenomenon has been recently suggested by Jeon [13]. For analyzing the reactive phenomenon caused by the unbalances, the positive-sequence fundamental frequency instantaneous reactive power is used. By comparing the expressions of this instantaneous power in three-phase systems with unbalanced voltages with those corresponding to balanced voltages, the reactive phenomenon due to the unbalances is expressed by separating of the traditional reactive power yield by the reactive loads in electric power systems. The reactive power which quantifies this new reactive phenomenon has been formulated by adding the amplitudes of each phase instantaneous reactive power. Total reactive power, reactive power yield by the reactances and reactive power due to the unbalances are analyzed in application examples and measured in experimental experiences on actual electric installations in the light of the new reactive power definitions explained in the IEEE Standard 1459-2000. II. REACTIVE POWER IN POWER SYSTEMS WITH BALANCED VOLTAGES.

Figure 1

Generally, the currents are unbalanced and they have an instantaneous positive-sequence reactive component, whose expression is, by Stokvis-Fortescue:
i zr + = B+V+ 2 sen [ wt + + ( z 1 )120 90 ]

(2) (3)

or in complex form, being j the imaginary unity: I r + = jV+ ( B+ )

The positive sign of B+ correspond to inductive loads and the negative sign is due to capacitive loads, and:
3 B+ = 1 Bz (4) 3 is the susceptance of the system forthe positive sequence.

z =1

it is the positive susceptance of the load. Reactive phenomenon in this system could be expressed by the fundamental-frequency positive-sequence instantaneous reactive power [10,11,12]:
pr ( t ) =

v
z =1

+z

ir +z = m

BV
+ z =1

2 +

sin 2 [ wt + + ( z 1 ) 120 ] (5)

And their effects are measured by the reactive power: Q+ r = 3 B + V+2 III. REACTIVE POWER IN POWER SYSTEMS WITH UNBALANCED VOLTAGES.

(6)

Figure 1 shows a power system with the most common topology used in low-voltage distribution networks: the sources and loads are star-connected, with neutral conductor of negligible impedance, to simplify the analysis. If the fundamental-frequency excitation voltages are balanced of positive-sequence, and being Gz and Bz the conductance and susceptance of the load phases (z=1,2,3), the fundamentalfrequency voltages and currents of each phase in the system have the following instantaneous expressions: v z ( t ) = v z + ( t ) = V+ 2 sen [ wt + + ( z 1 )120 ]
i z ( t ) = G zV + 2 sen [ wt + + ( z 1 )120 ] B zV + 2 sen [ wt + + ( z 1 )120 90 ] = i za ( t ) + i zr ( t ) (1) where the subscripts a and r refer the active and reactive components of the fundamental-frequency phase currents.

Lets now consider that the power system of the figure 1 is unbalanced at sources. Voltages and currents in the systemphases are unbalanced, so their fundamental component has positive, negative and zero sequence components (+,-,0). Such as Emanuel explains in the IEEE Standard 1459-2000 [10], active and reactive phenomena are defined by the positive-sequence fundamental-frequency voltages and currents. Expressions of fundamental-frequency currents in each phase of the load are in function of the symmetrical components of the fundamental-frequency phase voltages: I 1 = ( G1 + B1 ) V1 = ( G1 + B1 ) (V + + V + V0 )
I 2 = ( G2 + B2 ) V2 = ( G2 + B2 ) ( a 2V+ + aV + V0 ) I 3 = ( G3 + B3 ) V3 = ( G3 + B3 ) ( aV + + a V + V0 )
2

(7)

From these expressions the positive-sequence components of the fundamental-frequency phase currents are: I + = 1 V+ ( G1 + G2 + G3 ) + 1 V+ ( B1 + B2 + B3 ) + 3 3 (8) + 1 V ( Y1 + a 2 Y2 + aY3 ) + 1 V0 ( Y1 + aY2 + a 2 Y3 ) 3 3 where Yz = Gz + Bz is the admittance of each phase of the load. So positive-sequence fundamental-frequency voltages and currents of the phases can be formulated as:
V+ = V+ + I + = G+ V+ + B+ V+ + U Y 'V+ + AY "V+ = I a + + I r +

p rr ( t ) = m

BV
+ z =1

2 +

sin 2 [ wt + + ( z 1 )120 ]

(16)

This term expresses the reactive phenomenon yield by the reactances, since it is formulated in function of the load susceptances B+. So, the other two terms in (15) express the reactive phenomenon due to the unbalances:
p ru ( t ) =
3

[
z =1 A

Y' sin ( + + ' )] V +2 sin 2 [ wt + + ( z 1 )120 ]

(9)

[
z =1

Y" sin ( + 0 + " )] V +2 sin 2 [ wt + + ( z 1 )120 ]

being the load positive conductance and susceptance:

G+ = 1 3

G
z z =1

B+ = 1 3

B
z z =1

(10)

and
Y ' = 1 (Y1 + a 2Y2 + aY3 ) = Y ' ' 3 Y " = 1 (Y1 + aY2 + a 2Y3 ) = Y " " 3

(11)

Voltage unbalance ( U ) and asymmetry ( A ) degrees are:

U =

V = U + V+

A =

V0 = A 0 + V+

(12)

Positive-sequence fundamental reactive current is, from (9):

I r + = j V+ [ B+ + U Y' sin ( + + ' ) + + A Y" sin ( + + " ) ]

(17) Reactive phenomenon due to the unbalances has got the following properties: a) it can be inductive or capacitive, and so can be added or compensated to the reactive phenomenon caused by the reactances, b) it can be manifested even though the reactive loads do not exist in the systems, since in their expressions there are terms which do not depend of the reactances. All reactive phenomena are presented when there are dephases (or angle-shifts) between voltages and currents in the system, independently of which are their origin (the reactances, electronic controlled converters or unbalances), so they can be called dephase phenomena too. The reactive power, which quantifies these phenomena, is obtained as the sum of the amplitudes in (15), in the same way that Steinmetz:
Q+ = 3 B +V +2 + +3V +2 [ U Y' sin ( + + ' ) + A Y" sin ( + 0 + " )]

(13)

Instantaneous values of fundamental-frequency voltages and currents are from (9) and (13) of each phase z=1,2,3:
v z + ( t ) = V+ 2 sin ( wt + + ( z 1 )120 ) i zr + ( t ) = B+ V+ 2 sin [ wt + + ( ( z 1 )120 + 90 ) ] + + U Y' sin ( + + ' ) V+ 2 sin [ wt + + ( ( z 1 )120 + 90 ) ] + + A Y" sin ( + 0 + " ) V+ 2 sin [ wt + + ( ( z 1 ) 210 + 90 ) ]

(18) It has two components, the reactive power caused by the reactances: Q+ r = 3 B+ V+2 (19) and the reactive power due to the unbalances:
Q+ u = 3V+2 [ U Y' sin ( + + ' ) + A Y" sin ( + 0 + " )]

(14) From (14), positive-sequence fundamental-frequency instantaneous reactive power has the following expression:
pr ( t ) =

v
z =1 3 z =1 3

+z

ir +z = m
U

BV
+ z =1

2 +

sin 2 [ wt + + ( z 1 )120 ]

[ [
z =1

Y' sin ( + + ' )] V+2 sin 2 [ wt + + ( z 1 )120 ] Y" sin ( + 0 + " )] V+2 sin 2 [ wt + + ( z 1 )120 ]

(15) By comparing expressions (5) and (15) for power systems with balanced and unbalanced voltages, respectively, it is observed that the first term in (15) is the same instantaneous reactive power in systems with balanced voltages:

(20) This last reactive power is zero when: a) the voltages are balanced, b) the loads are balanced, and c) the system has a certain symmetry. But in resistive power systems the reactive power due to the unbalances can have values different from zero when both sources and loads are unbalanced in the same time, since Y and Y depend of the resistive and the reactive values of the load phases and the angles are not always necessary null. The above indicated quantities and expressions can be used in power systems with both sources and loads delta-connected. In this last case the asymmetrical voltage degree ( A ) always is zero. IV. APPLICATION EXAMPLE.

Lets consider one single-phase induction electric motor (figure 2), which is absorbing 2820 W, with a cos = 0,74,

V.

PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES.

Figure 2

from an unbalanced three-phase electric network, whose voltages have got the following values: V AN = 240 4 .14 (V )
V BN = 209.375 VCN = 240
120

For measuring the reactive phenomena an electronic instrument, which works with LabVIEW software, has been used. Figure 3 shows working diagram of that instrument for obtaining values of reactive power in three-phase power systems. First, the instrument measures the instantaneous phase voltages and currents in the power system. Second, these voltages and currents are divided into their components of fundamental and non-fundamental frequency. Third, the admittances for the fundamental frequency of each phase load ( Yz = Gz + Bz ) are obtained trough the complex power ( S z ) measured in each phase of the load:

Yz =

Vz2 S z*

(21)

(V )

244 .14

(V )

Current values measured in the system lines are: I A = 1588 38.13 ( A ) I B = I C = 0 . From where positive (+), negative (-) and zero (0) sequence voltages and currents have got the following values: V + = 229.375 0 (V ) V = 0 V0 = 20 60 (V )
I + = I = I 0 = 5.29
38.13

( A)

By applying Emanuels approach, included in the IEEE Standard 1459-2000, positive-sequence reactive power is in this system: Q+ = 3V+ I + sin + = 2247.62 (VAr ) But Emanuels approach does not indicate which part of this value is due to the reactance or to the unbalance effects. Conductance and susceptance of the load are, respectively: GA = 0.049 -1, BA = 0.0445 -1. And the positive susceptance of the load, from (10): B+ = j 0.0148 1 Also, according to (11): Y = Y = 0.022
1

Fourth, the fundamental-frequency components of the phase voltages and currents are expressed in function of the load admittances ( Yz ) and decomposed into positive, negative and zero-sequence voltages and currents. Fifth, the positivesequence reactive current is obtained according to (9). Sixth, the instantaneous values of voltages and currents from (14) are applied for obtaining the instantaneous reactive power, pr(t), such as is expressed in (15) and decomposed into instantaneous reactive power yield by the reactances, prr(t), and instantaneous reactive power caused by the unbalances, pru(t). Seventh, the whole reactive power phenomena (Q+) is quantified from (18) and their components caused by the reactances (Q+r) and due to the unbalances (Q+u) are obtained from (19) and (20), respectively. Measuring instrument displays the values and the instantaneous evolution of these powers too.

42 .47

and unbalance and asymmetry voltage degrees are, respectively, from (12): U = 0 A = 0.0872 By substituting these values in (18), it is obtained the same value of the positive reactive power calculated from Emanuels approach. But now we can determinate the reactive power caused by the reactances, from (19): Q+ r = 3 0,0148 229.3752 = 2336 (VAr ) by separating from the reactive power due to the unbalances, obtained from (20):
Q+ u = 3 229.3752 [ 0.0872 0.022 sin ( 60 +44 ,47 ) = 88.38 (VAr )

It is appreciated that in this system reactive power due to the unbalances is capacitive (negative value) and it compensates the reactive power caused by the reactances, which is an inductive power (positive), since the load is an electric motor.

Figure 3.

Figure 4 shows the measuring instrument of the reactive power placed at the laboratory, where some measures have

been realized. Also, a great number of measures were made in urban networks and industrial installations. Some of those measures are included in table 1 and they have been ordered in function of the voltage unbalance and asymmetry degrees ( U , A ). All installations have distorted voltages, with THDv% not lower than 1%.

sixth register, obtained at the laboratory, the reactive power due to the unbalances is greater than the reactive or dephase power yield by the reactances, changing in this manner the inductive character of the installation, which passed to be capacitive. Table 2 shows symmetrical components of fundamentalfrequency phase voltages and currents corresponding to the fourth date in table 1, registered by the measuring instrument placed at the transformation centre of a village. And figures 5, 6 and 7 show the timing evolutions of all the instantaneous reactive powers corresponding to the above indicated fourth register in the table 1. From them it is appreciated that reactive phenomenon caused by unbalances is capacitive (figure 5) and so it compensates the reactive phenomenon yield by the

Figure 4.

Registers 1 and 2 are from two very balanced at sources and loads electrical installations (current unbalance degrees in these installations are lower than 3%). It is appreciated the reactive power due to the unbalances are very small in both two last registers, lower than 0.1%. Other data registered in table 1 correspond to installations with very high voltage unbalances. It is observed that values of reactive power due to the unbalances increases with the voltage unbalance degrees and in the particular case of the sixth register, obtained at the laboratory, the reactive power due to the unbalances is greater than the reactive or dephase power yield by the reactances, changing in this manner the inductive character of the installation, which passed to be capacitive. P
(kW) 1 2 3 4 5 6 201.606 30.985 275.687 6.757 41.982 0.134

Table 2.

U
(%) 0.2 0.54 4.91 6.78 8.05 15.63

A
(%) 0.12 0.30 2.72 3.20 3.06 14.30

Q+
(kVAr)

Q+r
(kVAr)

Q+u
(VAr)

20.85 (ind) 6.65 (ind) 8.04 (cap) 1.70 (ind) 3.95 (ind) 0.19 VAr (cap)

20.86 (ind) 6.65 (ind) 3.04 (cap) 2.39 (ind) 4.68 (ind) 4.17 VAr (ind)

6.44 (cap) 6.64 (ind) 5,000 (cap) 696.46 (cap) 728.98 (cap) 4.35 (cap)

Figure 5.

Table 1.

Also it is appreciated in table 1 that reactive power due to the unbalances can have the same or different character, inductive or capacitive, as the reactive power caused by the reactances increasing or decreasing the whole reactive power. Other data registered in table 1 correspond to installations with very high voltage unbalances. It is observed that values of reactive power due to the unbalances increases with the voltage unbalance degrees and in the particular case of the

Figure 6.

reactances (figure 6), which is inductive in this case, decreasing the total reactive or dephase power (figure 7).

have very high values which produce bad workings on the distribution transformers, distorting their magnetic fields and causing distorted and unbalanced excitation voltages. REFERENCES.
[1] [2] [3] C.P. Steinmetz. Theory of Alternating Current Phenomena. Mc Graw. New York. 1897. Budeanu, I. Puissances reactives et fictives. Institut Romain de lEnergie. Bucharest, 1927. Czarnecki, L.S.What is wrong with the Budeanu concept of reactive and distortion power y why if should be abandoned. IEEE Transaction on Instrumentation and Measurement. Vol. 36. N 3, September 1987. pp.834-837. Czarnecki, L.S.Orthogonal descomposition of the currents in a three-phase non-linear asymmetrical circuit with non-sinusoidal voltage source. IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, Vol. 37, n 1, March 1988. pp. 30-34. H. Akagi, Y. Kanazawa, A. Nabae. Instantaneous reactive power compensators comprising switching devices without energy storage components. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 20, N 3, May/June 1984,pp.625-630. H. Kim, F. Blaabjerg, B. Bak-Jensen. Spectral Analysis of Instantaneous Powers in Single-Phase and Three-Phase Systems With Use of p-q-r Theory. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol. 17, N 5, September 2002, pp. 711-720. Xianzhong Dai, Guohai Liu, Ralf Gretsch. Generalized theory of instantaneous reactive quantity for multiphase power system. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. Vol 19, n 3, July 2004, pp.965-972. Len-Martnez, V; Giner-Garca, J.; Montaana-Romeu, J.; Cazorla-Navarro, A. Efficiency in electrical installations. News power definitions. Mundo Electrnico Revue. N 322, July 2001, pp. 28- 32. Montaana-Romeu, J.; Len-Martnez, V.; Giner-Garca, J.; Cazorla-Navarro, A. Measurement of energies associated of power quality with unbalanced and non-sinusoidal voltages in electric power systems. 14th PSCC. Sevilla. 24-28 June 2002. IEEE Std. 1459-2000. IEEE Trial-Use Standard for the Measurement of Electric Power Quantities Under Sinusoidal, Nonsinusoidal, Balanced or Unbalanced Conditions. Emanuel, A.E. Apparent Powers Definitions for Three- Phase Systems. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 10, n 3, July 1999. pp. 767-772. Willems, J.L.; Ghijselen, J.A.; Emanuel, A.E. The Apparent Power Concept and the IEEE Standard 1459-2000. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 20, n 2, April 2005. pp 876-884. S.J. Jeon. Considerations on a Reactive Power Concept in a Multiline System. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 21, N 2. April 2006. pp. 551-559. Filipski, P.S.; Baghzouz, Y; Cox, M.D. Discussion on power definitions contained in the IEEE Dictionary. IEEE Transaction on Power Delivery. Vol.9. N 3, July 1994, pp. 1237-1244.

[4]

[5] Figure 7.

VI.

CONCLUSIONS.

[6]

Bad power quality due to voltage unbalances in three-phase power systems is another cause for the presence of reactive phenomena in those systems. The reactive power due to the unbalances in three-phase power systems, has been formulated in this paper in the light of the new reactive power definitions included in the IEEE Standard 1459-2000, and separated from the traditional reactive power caused by the reactances or by the electronic controlled converters workings. Reactive power caused by the unbalances has the main following properties: a) it can be inductive or capacitive, and so can be added or can compensate the traditional reactive power due to the reactances, b) it can have values different from zero even in resistive systems, when there are unbalances at sources and at loads in the same time, and generally when there is not any symmetry in the system. All the reactive powers obtained in this paper for unbalanced power systems are physical quantities since they are obtained through the instantaneous power. Also, these quantities can be used for all kind of electrical power systems, sinusoidal or distorted, balanced and unbalanced, with star or delta connections. Reactive phenomena measured in actual electric installations have confirmed the theoretical postulates, such as the reactive phenomenon due to the unbalances exists and its relative importance increases with the voltage unbalance degrees. Reactive power due to the unbalances in actual installations generally is much lower than traditionally known reactive power yield by the reactive loads and their technical and economical effects can be considered negligible. However, we have met an important number of registers in which reactive power due to unbalances must be technically considered, over all when this phenomenon has capacitive character, since can originate over-voltages and voltage oscillations in electrical installations. These non-usual situations have been detected in industrial and in urban installations when the neutral currents

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10] [11] [12]

[13] [14]