Repblica Bolivariana de Venezuela Ministerio del Poder Popular para la Educacin Universitaria Instituto Universitario Politcnico Santiago Mario

Extensin Mrida

The plant

Niro Pernia IC: 23.716.257 Chemical Engineering (49)

Index
Introduction.. 3 Seet..4 Root..6 Stem ...8 Conclusions.9 Bibliography.10

Introduction
Agronomy (Latin ager, 'field', and Greek , nomos, "law"), also known as agricultural engineering, is the body of knowledge in various applied sciences that govern the practice of agriculture and livestock. It is the science which aims to improve the quality of the processes of production and processing of agricultural and food products, based on scientific and technological studies the physical, chemical, biological, economic and social influence or affect the production process . Its subject is the social phenomenon or process complex agroecosystem, understood as the specific model of human intervention in nature, for production of food and raw materials.

Seed
The seed, seed or seed is each of the bodies that are part of the fruit that gives rise to a new plant is the structure which made the plants spread so called spermatophytes (seed plants). The seed is produced by the maturation of an egg from a gymnosperm or an angiosperm. A seed contains an embryo that can develop a new plant under appropriate conditions. It also contains a source of stored food and is wrapped in a protective cover.

Structure

The stored food begins as a tissue called endosperm that is provided by the parent plant and can be rich in oil or starch and protein. In some species the embryo lodges in the endosperm, the seed used for sprouting. In others, the endosperm is absorbed by the embryo while the latter grows within the developing seed, and cotyledons of the embryo are filled with stored food. At maturity, the seeds of these species have no endosperm. Some common plant seeds without endosperm are beans, peas, pumpkins, sunflowers, and radishes. Plant seed endosperm include all conifers, most of the grasses and other monocots such as corn and coconut. The seed coat develops from covered calls integument, originally surrounding the ovule. In this sheath mature seed can be converted into a thin covering, such as peanut, or something more substantial. The seeds of angiosperms are contained in dry or fleshy structures (or both layers), called off. In Spanish it is called food fruit representing the fleshy fruits and sweets. Instead gymnosperms seeds begin their development "naked" on the bracts of the cones, although its development is accompanied by scales, which help to protect them or their dispersion. There is also a legal concept of seeds, which is considered as a seed to all parts of the plant when its end is multiplication, then including seedlings, tissue culture plants, cuttings, and so on.

Function of the seed

nlike animals, plants are limited in their ability to seek favorable conditions for life and growth. Therefore have evolved in many different ways to spread and increase the population through the seeds. A seed must come to the right location on the optimal timing of germination. These properties that promote the production of the next generation may be more related to the fruits with the same seed as the seed typical function is to serve retardant mechanism, allowing stop growth if conditions are not favorable or allow time for dispersal. Each species has its way in a different way: making lots of seeds, hard seeds enveloping layers to be softened by the rains and the winter cold to germinate.
Seed production

Seed production is an essential process in agriculture. Thanks to him, peasants have been domesticated plant species we consume today, creating a huge variety within each species to irlas adapting to different environmental conditions and cultural needs. This process has continued in some regions for at least ten thousand years. From the twentieth century, there is a current tech industrial production and seed varieties designed to create work with chemicals and mass production conditions. At the beginning of XXI century, this trend has shifted in many regions of the planet to the traditional production of seeds. The industry argues that the industrial seeds are more productive and free of pests. Peasant movements like Via Campesina argues that such production depends on the application of agrochemicals and overall energy subsidy on oil and traditional seeds that are more robust and suitable for local food.
Stages of production

Seed production is an essential process in agriculture. Thanks to him, peasants have been domesticated plant species we consume today, creating a huge variety within each species to irlas adapting to different environmental conditions and cultural needs. This process has continued in some regions for at least ten thousand years. From the twentieth century, there is a current tech industrial production and seed varieties designed to create work with chemicals and mass production conditions. At the beginning of XXI century, this trend has shifted in many regions of the planet to the traditional production of seeds.

Root
In botany, the root is usually underground organ devoid of leaves growing in opposite direction to the stem and main functions are fixing the plant to the soil and absorbing water and minerals. The root is present in all vascular plants except some pteridophytes showing rhizoids and some plants acuticas.1 The root of the embryo radicle, is called the first party of the growing seed during germination. The radicle then develops causing the taproot with protective tissue at the apex, called the root cap. The radicle grows and fixed to the ground from the early stages of plant growth, which ensures the subsequent development of the same. In monocot plants, the radicle aborts in the early stages of development, so the root system consists of roots emerging from the stem base, which, for that reason, are called roots adventicias.2 In gymnosperms and dicots the primary root causes, by elongation and branching root system alorrizo, wherein there is a taproot, principal, sharp and dominant lateral roots. In the monocots and the pteridophytes, however, the root system of the adult plant is formed above the site of origin of the primary root that aborts early. The root system of plants is called homorrizo, fasciculated in hair or fibrous, and is formed by a set of adventitious roots and is widely ramificado.3 The roots can undergo structural changes pronounced, which may be considered, in most cases, such as adaptations to the environment, or the result of a specialized functional role other than that typical of this organ. Among them are the roots and specialized roots as organs of support and fijacin.4 5 The portion of land that surrounds the roots of plants is called rhizosphere and is an area where there are a series of physical and chemical relationships that affect soil structure and organisms living in it, giving different properties. The rhizosphere usually takes between a few millimeters or several centimeters around the root. This region is characterized by increased microbial biomass and activity. The community of the rhizosphere is a microbiota (bacteria, fungi and algae) and a micro and mesofauna (protozoa, nematodes, insects and mites) .6 The mycorrhizal symbiosis are especially important, which occurs in most plant groups vascular. The term defines the symbiosis between a fungus and the roots of a plant. As in other symbiotic relationships, both partners get benefits. In this case the plant receives mineral nutrients mainly fungus and water and the plant fungus obtains carbohydrates and vitamins that he himself is unable to synthesize while she can do through photosynthesis and other reactions internas.7 8 The root nodules are symbiotic associations between bacteria and higher plants. The best known is the species of Rhizobium legume family. The plant provides bacteria carbon compounds as energy source and a protective environment and get nitrogen into a usable form for the formation of protenas.9 The roots evolved in the sporophytes of at least two different lineages of vascular plants for their primary adaptive radiation on the earth in the Devonian period (makes about 410 to 395 million years).

That incident occurred about 15 million years after the appearance of tracheophytes and 50 million years after the first alleged embrifitas affinity with bryophytes. Both groups are known only by their spores but presumably had some anchoring member to sustrato.10 For intermediate Devonian late, most of the groups of plants developed a root system of any naturaleza.11 As the roots made longer could sustain higher overhead structure and the substrate could explore more efficient exploration profundidad.12 This soil had profound ecological effects: not only allowed the plants to conquer new habitats but also the subsequent colonization of these by animals and hongos.13
Function

The root has several functions in the plant. On one hand, allows the anchoring or fixing the plant to the ground. The relative size of the roots also determine the possibility that a plant may have a greater or lesser aerial shoot development. The root is also permits the absorption of water and mineral nutrients dissolved in it from the ground and transporting it to the rest of the plant. Also, the root is the support of complex symbiotic associations with various types of microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi, which help to dissolve the inorganic phosphorus of the soil, atmospheric nitrogen fixation and root development secundarias.3 17 18 In addition to these three functions that are general to all higher plants, the root of some species are specialized for the accumulation or storage of reserves. Thus, biennial plants such as carrot (Daucus carota) stored in the root reserves during the first year that used the second year to produce flowers, fruits and seeds. In some plants such as Isoetes (a Pteridophyta) and Littorella (a dicot family of Plantaginaceae) roots carrying carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, as its leaves usually lack estomas.3 The root, on the other hand, has a key role in the creation and protection of soil. Molecules and enzymes secreted by the roots and their symbiotic relationships contribute to soil formation. The roots of many trees secrete organic acids are powerful enough to dissolve limestone and calcium release and other useful minerals.

Stem
In botany, the stem is the axis of the aerial part of the cormfitas and is the organ that holds the leaves, flowers and fruits. Its main functions are to support and transport of photosynthates (carbohydrates and other compounds produced during photosynthesis) between the roots and hojas.1 It differs from the root by the presence of knots that are inserted in the axillary buds and leaves and by its negative geotropism, ie they grow against the force of gravity. Among the cormfitos there a single stem species whose stem does not branch and plants with many stems (pluricaules) whose stem is branched in various ways according to the activity of meristemas.2 3 From the standpoint of anatomy, the stem consists of three tissue systems: the dermal, fundamental and vascular bundle. Variations in the structure of the stems of different species and the major taxa are based primarily on differences in the relative distribution of the fundamental and vascular tissues. The stem length growth is due to the activity of apical meristems and subsequent elongation of internodes and is called primary growth. Secondary growth is characterized by increased thickness of the stem and is the result of the activity of so-called secondary meristems (cambium and phellogen). This type of growth is characteristic of gymnosperms and most trees and shrubs eudicotiledneas and results in the production of madera.4 The stems are classified from different viewpoints, ranging from consistency to the changes they could make to adapt to different environments. Such diversity is the basis for many applications that have economic stems from the food to the most varied industrias function Is the axis of the plant that holds the leaves, assimilation bodies flattened shape, which are arranged in a manner favorable to capture as much solar radiation with minimum mutual shading (see phyllotaxis). In plants that have no recognizable leaves, as in most of the cacti, the stem is responsible for photosynthesis. At the time of reproduction, the stem also holds flowers and fruits. In many species, the stem is also one of the bodies of water reserves and photoassimilates, especially prior to the reproductive stage. However, the main function of the stem is to constitute the water flow path between the roots and leaves of plants. You can have many meters, the longest woody stem that is known is that of climbing palm Calamus m.5 flow from 185

The water flow through the plant is done due to differences in water potential between the atmosphere and the ground, being conductive xylem tissue. The water flow in the xylem is a physical process, wherein the energy required to perform that comes from the transpiration of water from the stoma of the leaves to atmosphere. Following such perspiration, is a deficiency of water in the mesophyll cells of the leaf, which causes water to flow from the innermost cells with a greater potential for water. The initial water deficiency is spread on up to the height of the xylem conduits. Xylem capillary nature, the properties of cohesion of the water molecules to each other, the adhesion of water to the cell walls and the voltage developed by differences in the water potential originating from perspiration, together allow the movement of the column water from roots to leaves Morphology The stem generally is a cylindrical member that has enlarged-knot points, which are developed on the leaves. A portion of the stem situated between two consecutive nodes is called internode. It also presents a terminal bud at the apical end and several axillary buds differentiate in the axils of the leaves. [Edit] Buds A young bud is the end of a rod, and therefore also the apical meristem, immature leaves or takes leaf primordia. The yolk located at the end of the shaft is the terminal bud, while those found at the junction of the leaves and stem are axillary buds. In some cases it is difficult to distinguish from the rest of the stem buds, especially when the origins are not clearly grouped, as in asparagus (Asparagus officinalis) and largesized species of monocots such as Agave and Pandanus. According to its structure are two types of buds, buds scaly and naked buds. The apex of the buds scaly leaves are protected by modified scale-like, arranged tightly. Usually these scales, or tegmentos prulas dark and leathery, fulfill the role of protecting the vegetative apex. The scales, closely applied over each other and provided with a thick cuticle, prevent desiccation of embryonic tissues during the winter when the sap flow is slower. If it is a longitudinal section of the yolk, is observed below the apex vegetative protective scales, seat of the apex of the stem and the leaf primordia. When in the spring the meristem starts its activity, the scales fall, and the leaf primordia develop on mature leaves. In Eucalyptus buds can be up to 50 pairs of leaf primordia. They usually have plenty of hairs that hold air and provide a shelter for the meristem, protecting it from sudden temperature variations. The scales may have colleters, secreting glandular structures goo as mucilages and resins, which contribute to protection against desiccation to ensure greater impermeability and are common

especially in deciduous plants. Naked buds are devoid of protective scales and in this case are usually protected by young leaves. These buds are generally in plants herbceas.10 Axillary buds are usually unique, ie in the axil of each leaf a single bud is born, in some species, however, there may be multiple or extra axillary buds giving rise to flowers, branches, thorns or tendrils. Depending on how you are willing, there are two types of multiple buds: Serial and collateral. Serial buds are located one above the other in the leaf axil tectriz, forming a vertical row, as for example in the mburucuy (Passiflora caerulea), in the honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) and the Santa Rita (Bougainvillea spectabilis ), as well as are present in the bignonia, the Fabaceae and Rubiaceae). Adjacent side buds or are located one beside the other in the axilla of a sheet forming a horizontal row. In garlic (Allium sativum), each tooth is an axillary bud, in the inflorescences of banana (Musa) each set of buds will cause a "hand" of bananas. Also present in the Araceae and the palmeras.10 The phenomenon of cauliflory (trees or shrubs that produce flowers on the trunk and branches aphthous) is due to late development (years to decades after) remaining dormant buds in the bark of tallo.10 [Edit] Growth direction and symmetry When the stem is raised vertically above the soil, the plant is said upright axis and orthotropic. In this case the branches often develop radially around the main axis and each branch grows horizontally and displays radial symmetry. In contrast, when the main stem grows in the horizontal direction is called plagitropo growth. The plant in this case said prostrate or creeping, and their symmetry is often dorsiventral.

Conclusions
Plants are essential for any ecosystem. They provide all the energy for the ecosystem, they can get energy directly from sunlight. Plants use a process called photosynthesis where they use the sun's energy to grow and reproduce. They must also obtain nutrients from the soil. Nutrients enter the land where decomposing organisms break down dead materials and waste. Plants need room to grow and reproduce. All other organisms in the food chain, get their energy from plants, either directly by eating them as herbivores, or by eating herbivores, such as carnivores. Omnivores can obtain energy by eating both plants directly or by eating herbivores. Similarly, the decomposers get energy from either plants or animals that eat them. There are several different types of plants, not all animals can eat all kinds of plants. The gramiena, a plant is edible only for herbivores. That is because plants contain many types of fibers can not efficiently digest omnivores. Many herbivores have adapted the stomach that allows them to digest these plants.

Bibliography
Author:Flood Geology by David R. McQueen, M.S.Title: seet URL: http://www.icr.org/article/chemistry-oil-explained-by-flood-geology/

Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Title: Root URL: http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiactividad

Author:From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaTitle: stem URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphine