Fission Reactors: How is Energy Generated?

Nick Caggiano 3/14/2012

Fission Reactors: Powerful Energy Generation

Nick Caggiano

1. Audience and Scope

The purpose of this technical description is to provide the common student with a basic knowledge of the design and uses of nuclear fission reactors. Many non-engineering students have no idea how these power plants work and why they are not as dangerous as many people think. Mass energy production is an important topic for everyone in the near future to have a basic knowledge of. A lot of decisions about the future of our nations energy production must be made in the coming years. I hope that this description will provide some more helpful information on the subject for those who read it.

Page 2 of 13

Fission Reactors: Powerful Energy Generation

Nick Caggiano

2. Introduction to Process
A fission reactor produces power based on the reactions between neutrons in a reactor core and the reactor fuel (normally uranium-235). If the correct or desirable reaction occurs between a neutron and an atom of fuel, a large amount of energy will be released in the form of kinetic energy. This means that the atoms that come out of the reaction are moving very fast in comparison with the speed of the neutron and fuel atom before the reaction. The motion of these atoms produces a large amount of heat because of many collisions that occur between the new faster atoms and any atoms in their way. The heat produced can be transferred into a coolant material. Most of the time this coolant material is water, but there are other alternative materials that we will discuss later in this technical description. No matter what coolant material is used, the heat will eventually be transferred to a system of fluid that will be used to generate gas that will turn turbines and create electricity. Basically, through nuclear interactions we are able to create a large amount of heat that is then converted into electricity that is sent into the electrical grid and used to power homes across the country.

Page 3 of 13

Fission Reactors: Powerful Energy Generation

Nick Caggiano

3. Basics of Nuclear Fission

a. Neutron Nucleus Interaction Nuclear fission is based on the interactions between a neutron and an atom of nuclear fuel. It can be thought of in a very similar way as in chemical reactions. We start with two atoms (a neutron and an atom of fuel). Then, they interact in one of many ways. After this interaction there is either a single resulting atom or many resulting atoms. Depending on the outcome a change in energy can also be observed. There are many possible outcomes, but for now we will focus on a few of the more important and most likely outcomes. b. Possible Interactions The interactions that we are going to focus on right now are radiative capture, scattering, and nuclear fission. 1.) Radiative capture- The neutron is absorbed into the fuel atom increasing the total energy of the fuel atom by an amount equal to the kinetic energy of the neutron before being absorbed. 2.) Neutron scattering- The neutron basically collides with the fuel atom and bounces off of it. In this scattering collision it is possible for the neutron to transfer kinetic energy to the fuel atom leaving it in an excited state. Both radiative capture and scattering are important interactions because in the overall process of a fission reactor they both affect the amount of free neutrons and the energies of those neutrons in the
Page 4 of 13

Fission Reactors: Powerful Energy Generation

Nick Caggiano

reactor core. The use and control of fission reactors is almost completely based on the study of neutron interactions. 3.) Fission- The neutron is first absorbed into the fuel atom. If the neutron is able to overcome the activation energy then it is possible for the fuel atom to fission.

In a few different isotopes of certain elements considered fissile the activation energy is less than zero. That means that a neutron that is moving very slow can still cause fission. The most commonly used fissile fuel is uranium-235. A few types of reactors are able to work with plain uranium that is found in nature. In nature uranium-235 has an atomic abundance of 0.72%. The majority (99.27%) of uranium found in nature is uranium-238 (Shultis). It is possible for uranium-238 to fission, however, uranium-235 is a lot more likely to produce a fission reaction and in our fission reactors the amount of uranium-235 is the more important number. For most reactors the content of the uranium must be increased to a few percent to have a critical amount of uranium-235 (Shultis). c. Safety: Can a Fission Reactor Explode Like an Atomic Bomb? The simple answer to this question is no. The reactor core would meltdown long before any catastrophic nuclear explosion occurred. When the term reactor meltdown is used it simply means that the structure holding the fuel and moderator material inside of the core has literally melted. Once it has melted down the integrity of the core is gone. Not every meltdown occurs the same way, but radioactive material can leak during a meltdown which is why it is so dangerous
Page 5 of 13

Fission Reactors: Powerful Energy Generation

Nick Caggiano

An important concept to consider in this discussion is the fission chain reaction. In its most basic form this concept means that if we put in one free neutron the reactor core will continue to produce fission reactions because the products of a fission reaction are energy, 2 large fission products and 2-3 neutrons. In an atomic bomb the rate of fissions per second increases exponentially. This means that an enormous amount of energy is released in a short amount of time creating the huge explosion associated with a bomb. In a fission reactor the moderator material limits the increase in the fissions per second. The moderator material absorbs neutrons, hence making fewer neutrons available to cause fission. Almost any explosion associated with a fission reactor is most likely due to a steam explosion caused by a buildup of pressure. d. Pollution One key fact about nuclear fission that makes it far more efficient than other types of energy generation (coal, natural gas, etc) is that it takes a very small amount of fuel to produce huge amounts of energy. One kilogram of pure uranium-235 can produce the same amount of energy as 2.7 million kilograms of coal. Uranium also only produces a small amount of nuclear waste in comparison with the pollution that coal causes. The nuclear waste that is produced is also capable of being reused. New techniques are being developed to use the nuclear waste as fuel in certain reactors.

Page 6 of 13

Fission Reactors: Powerful Energy Generation

Nick Caggiano

4. Energy Production Process

a. Water Condenser The water condenser cools the hot water vapor and returns it to a low temperature to be sent back though the cycle. It is important to always keep a certain level of cold water flowing through the reactor because if it cannot be cooled effectively the reactor may overheat and meltdown. This system can be connected to a giant cooling tower or a large body of water to maintain a low temperature. b. Pumps The pumps are very important to all of the fluid cycles in the reactor. The water that is in the reactor core needs to be cycled through the system so that it can transfer heat to the secondary water cycle. This secondary water cycle, as seen above in the picture, is heated to create steam and turn the turbines. c. Reactor Core The reactor core contains the nuclear fuel and the moderator material. This is where the fission reactions take place and the heat is generated. The reactor core must be completely sealed and
Page 7 of 13

Fission Reactors: Powerful Energy Generation

Nick Caggiano

contained so that no radioactive material can escape. It must also be kept below a certain temperature to avoid meltdown. d. Steam Turbine Generator The steam turbine generator is where the heat generated from the reactor core is converted into useful energy. The hot steam produced by the heat of the reactor pushes and turns the turbines before it is cooled and cycled back through the system. The rotational energy of the spinning turbines can be converted into electrical energy. e. Electrical Grid The electrical grid consists of a large networking of high voltage power lines, transformers and power plants. The electrical energy produced by the steam turbine generators can be sent into the electrical grid and transported using transmission lines across the country. Using transformers the high voltage electricity in the transmission lines can be reduced to a lower voltage that is usable and comes out of the wall sockets in individual homes. The whole point of all of this is to deliver usable energy into the homes of Americans across the country.
Page 8 of 13

Fission Reactors: Powerful Energy Generation

Nick Caggiano

5. Different Models of a Fission Reactor

a. Light Water Reactor Light water reactors are the most commonly used reactors around the world. There are many different designs for light water reactors, but any reactor that uses light water as the moderator falls into this broad category. To clarify, light water is H2O where the hydrogen atom is only of the isotope 1H (protium). The hydrogen atom is composed of only one proton and an electron. b. Heavy Water Reactor Heavy water reactors, in contrast to light water reactors, use heavy water as the moderator. Heavy water is H2O where the hydrogen atom is the isotope 2H (deuterium). This atom consists of one neutron, one proton and one electron. Deuterium is far scarcer than protium making up only 0.015% of all hydrogen in the earths natural abundance. This makes heavy water more expensive than light water because of the processing that must occur to produce enough heavy water for a reactor.

Page 9 of 13

Fission Reactors: Powerful Energy Generation

Nick Caggiano

c. Pressurized Water Reactor In a pressurized water reactor the moderator fluid is pumped through a cycle from the reactor core around to a thermal couple where the heat of the fluid is transferred to another cycle of water. The water in the first cycle that goes through the reactor must be kept under high pressure at all times so that air bubbles are not produced. Air bubbles can mess up the heat transfer coefficient of the fluid and endanger the whole process. With the water under high pressure the fluid remains in a liquid state at a higher temperature than it would otherwise. With a higher temperature the efficiency of the conversion of heat energy over to electrical energy is increased. An example of this reactor is pictured above in section 4 on page 7. d. Boiling Water Reactor In a boiling water reactor the cooling water is allowed to boil inside of the reactor. The steam produced is then directly passed directly into the turbine compartment. This removes one of the cycles of water which can improve the efficiency of the system. Since the water in this cycle is radioactive it must be contained and controlled at all times. Also, since the water is now in direct contact with the turbine system all of this system must now be contained and monitored so that no radioactive material is leaked.

Page 10 of 13

Fission Reactors: Powerful Energy Generation

Nick Caggiano

e. Gas Cooled Reactors In a gas cooled reactor CO2 or He gas is used as the coolant instead of water. Also, graphite is used as the moderator instead of water. This can eliminate the need for a high pressure container vessel around the core.

f. Breeder Reactors A breeder reactor works using a different concept. A breeder reactor uses fertile nuclei such as thorium-232 and uranium-238. These materials themselves are not fissionable, but they can produce fissile materials. Breeder reactors can be considered superior because of their fuel economy, but they are not widely used because it is still cheaper to mine uranium than use a breeder reactor. In the figure at the right it shows how uranium-238 can be used to produce the fissile material plutonium239. Bombarding uranium235 with neutrons will trigger two beta decays that will result in the production of plutonium-239.
Page 11 of 13

Fission Reactors: Powerful Energy Generation

Nick Caggiano

6. Conclusion
Nuclear energy is one of the most powerful and useful sources of energy for the U.S. in the future. While there are dangers associated with the use of radioactive material the positives far outweigh the negatives. Through the controlled and contained burn-up of a critical reactor core huge amounts of heat can be converted into electrical energy. The system in general will need to include a water condenser, many pumps, a reactor core, one or many steam turbines, and a connection to the electrical grid to make the energy usable. There are many types of reactors used today, but all of them are very effective at creating safe energy. New safer and more effective models of reactors are being built and designed now. The first approvals for reactor construction in over thirty years were made in February this year. These reactors are both being built in Georgia and plan to start operating by 2016 and 2017 (Hargreaves). In the figure below the locations of every nuclear power plant in the world as of 2005 can be seen.

Page 12 of 13

Fission Reactors: Powerful Energy Generation

Nick Caggiano

Works Cited
Hargreaves, Steve. "New Nuclear Reactors Set to Be OK'd for Georgia." CNNMoney. Cable News Network, 08 Feb. 2012. Web. 12 Mar. 2012. <http://money.cnn.com/2012/02/08/news/economy/nuclear_reactors/index.htm>. Shultis, J. Kenneth., and Richard E. Faw. Fundamentals of Nuclear Science and Engineering. 2nd ed. Boca Raton: CRC, 2008. Print. Pictures Used (In Order of Appearance) Figure 1- http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_TWLP7-EH00/ST1kK8c48YI/AAAAAAAAAO8/ZogUHoELJ1U/s400/nu1.jpg Figure 2 - http://www.universetoday.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/09/reactor.jpg Figure 3 - http://www.cameco.com/common/images/content/u101/reactor2.jpg Figure 4 - http://www.petrolog.net/webhelp/Logging_Tools/cnl/cnl01.gif Figure 5 - http://radchem.nevada.edu/classes/chem312/images/fission.jpg Figure 6 - "Energy for the World - Why Uranium?" : Education. Web. 14 Mar. 2012. <http://www.world-nuclear.org/education/whyu.htm>. Figure 7 - http://www.oncor.com/images/knowledgecollege/h20.jpg Figure 8 - http://www.engineeringexpert.net/Engineering-Expert-WitnessBlog/http://www.engineeringexpert.net/web/Engineering-Expert-Witness-Blog/wpcontent/uploads//2011/02/turbine_wheel.jpg Figure 9 - http://static.ddmcdn.com/gif/power-transmission.gif Figure 10 - http://www.humanresonance.org/protium_deuterium_tritium.jpg Figure 11 - http://www.euronuclear.org/info/encyclopedia/images/bwr.jpg Figure 12 - https://inlportal.inl.gov/portal/server.pt/gateway/PTARGS_0_2_2629_277_2253_43 /http%3B/exps3.inl.gov%3B7087/publishedcontent/publish/communities/inl_gov/researc h_programs/nuclear_energy/gfr_introduction/gfr_sm.jpg Figure 13 - http://www.3rd1000.com/nuclear/fbre.gif Figure 14 - "The Incontiguous Brick." The Incontiguous Brick. 21 Aug. 2007. Web. 14 Mar. 2012. <http://incontiguousbrick.wordpress.com/2007/08/21/nuclear-reactors-of-theworld/>. Page 13 of 13