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Structure of English:
Phonology and Morphology
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The Course
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Lecturer: H. Salhi
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Course Description
By Hammouda Ben Ammar Salhi Teacher of Translation and Linguistics Web Site: http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/ E-mail: hammouda_s@hotmail.com
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Lecturer: H. Salhi
Chapter 3: English word formation processes (2 weeks)
WEEK
Major processes Minor processes
GRADING
You will be graded according to the following scale:
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When you are fed up with the (language) system, It means that you are fed up with (the) life (exam) The Lecturer
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Introduction
In this course, we shall handle language as a grammatical set of rules. That is, we shall attempt to introduce students to some rules constraining the use of language. Many people mistakenly think that words are the smallest units in language. In Fact, there are smaller units in language. In this course, we will see the smallest meaningful units (i.e. morphemes) as well as the smallest sound units (i.e. phonemes). In the first part, we will investigate the word as a combination of sounds. In other word, we will see how, and according to which rules, sounds form words. In the second part, however, we will see how words are composed of different types of morphemes.
Language can be studied as a structure at different levels. The levels are assumed to be ordered in a hierarchy. The following figure shows such a hierarchy. Semantic level: Syntactic level: Morphological level: Phonology (or phonemics): deals with meaning deals with sentence-structure deals with word-structure deals with sound systems
The task of describing the grammatical aspects of a language is seen as working out, in separate stages, first the pronunciation, then the word-structure, then the sentencestructure and finally the meaning of utterances. In this course, however, we shall only be concerned with the first two levels; i.e. phonology and morphology.
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What is Phonology?
Phonology is a branch of linguistics, closely related to phonetics, which studies the manners of organization and usage of the speech sounds in natural languages. The history of this science reaches ancient times, as the Greek and Roman grammarians also investigated the phonological systems of their languages. The foundations for modern phonological inquiries were laid in the nineteenth century by linguists such as Ferdinand de Saussure and Henry Sweet. Phonetics deals with the smallest chunks of language, yet it is in connection with other linguistic disciplines like morphology, because adding morphemes may change the meaning of words and their pronunciation, frequently following patterns. Phonetics is also related with syntax, as depending on a function of a word in a sentence it can be pronounced differently with a shifted phrasal stress and with changed intonation. Similarly, this branch of linguistics is connected with semantics because of intonation constraints. While phonetics studies the production and perception of the speech sounds, phonology is more interested in the abstract, that is mental aspects of these sounds. It inquiries into and describes the patterns of sounds and sound types which native speakers acquire intuitively. However, since the term 'speech sounds' seems to be used mainly in phonetics, phonologists speak of phonemes. A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in the human language. Yet it is not identical with the sound itself, it is rather a theoretical representation without mentioning its position in a syllable, word, or phrase. One important feature of phonemes is their contrastiveness which enables their identification. It is by contrasting the two phonemes, for example /k/ and /g/ that can be seen that they differ in at least one feature, like voicing. Therefore we shall devote a whole chapter, in this course, for distinctive features. All languages have a set of such distinctive phonemes. By and large, it seems that the majority of languages have about 30 phonemes, but there are some that have as few as 11 or as many as almost 150. The English language, it is said, has about 43 phonemes, depending on the variety of English in question. Even though the number of phonemes may differ from language to language, the sets are always limited, but enable speakers to create unlimited numbers of words. In English the word step consists of four phonemes, and the word pest has the same four phonemes, yet since they are in different order the meaning is not the same. Phonology also investigates the possible sequences of phonemes in a given language. Therefore, it indirectly studies word formation processes, as they too are constrained by the rules of phonotactics, that is allowable organization (or sequences) of phonemes. Thus it is very unlikely that any English word should begin with ng- or the sound /?/ while this sound is quite common in the middle, or at the end of English words. However, the fact that phonotactic constraints do not allow for some sounds in a language to occur in certain positions, which confines the word-coining and word formation processes of a language, it does not mean that such words do not appear in that language. Sometimes loan words may break the phonological rules of a given language and still be in use, as is the case with the initial position of the /n/ sound in English. By and large, words with such a sound in the initial position have started appearing in English only recently and all of them are loan words: schnapps, schnitzel, schmo. The analysis of the possible sequences of phonemes focuses not only on phonemes themselves, but also on syllables and clusters, though the present course does not devote any section to syllables. Therefore, we are going to brush up your memory with what you have seen in the course of Pronunciation of 2nd year. A syllable must comprise a vowel, but usually there is also a consonant (C) before the vowel (V). Syllables are frequently described as consisting of an www.freewebs.com/hsalhi or a few onset, which is a consonant,
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consonants, and a rhyme, often subdivided into a nucleus (a vowel), and coda (any following consonants). In the English language coda does not always have to occur in a syllable, like for instance in the words: he (CV), or too (CV). Clusters, or consonant clusters are simply two or more consonants one after another. Clusters, like other phonotactic rules, are characteristic of a given language, for instance the /st/ cluster in English can be an onset: street, or a coda: highest, however it is impossible in Japanese. Apart from analyzing the phonemes of a language, clusters and syllables, phonology also deals with the processes that occur in everyday, fluent speech. The most frequent processes that can be observed in casual speech are assimilation and elision, though, in the present course, we are going to focus only on the assimilation process. Assimilation is a process in which certain sounds copy the characteristics of another, adjacent sound. Elision is a process in which some sounds, or even syllables are omitted and not pronounced at all, although in other situations they are normally uttered. Elision occurs not because of laziness of speakers, but to make the pronunciation more fluent. But let un start from the beginning now, the basic concepts of phonological analysis.
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Chapter One
Basic Concepts
Of Phonological Analysis
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When two sounds are in complementary distribution, they are barred from occurring in identical environments: there is a rigid division of labour so that one sound appears in certain contexts and the other in some different ones. Thus, the very back [k] allophone (or variant) of the phoneme /k/ that we have seen above ( in the section of phonemes and allophones) occurs before back vowels and the fronted [k] as in keys before front vowels. But in case the two allophones occur in exactly the same environment, we can say then that this is a case of free variation.
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Chapter Two
1 Francis is Professor of Linguistics within the Department of Linguistics and English Language, Lancaster University. His
research interests are in the areas of English phonology and morphology, morphological theory, phonological theory, and African linguistics. His recent articles include 'The word in Luganda' . In Studies in African Linguistic Typology Voeltz , F. K. Erhard (ed.) Typological Studies in Language 64, pp. 171-93, (written with Larry Hyman 2006), 'The syllable in Luganda phonology and morphology'. For students who eager continue their postgraduate studies in Linguistics, Professor Katamba can be reached through the following E-mail: f.katamba@lancaster.ac.uk
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the fact that the phonological behaviour of phonemes is largely determined by the phonetic features which they are made of.
Cavity features
These features refer to place of articulation. They specify where in the vocal tract modifications of the airstream take place in the production of a particular sound. For instance, in the production of some sounds, the main obstruction of the airstream is no back than the alveolar ridge such as in the labials [m] and [b], these are called anterior sounds or [+ anterior], but we are going to choose only one feature among the cavity feature for study, the labiality feature. Labial Vs non-labial [+/- labial] In case there is a stricture (or narrowing) made with the lips, the sound produced is labial, if there is no such stricture, the sound is non-labial. It is worth mentioning, however, that
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there is a considerable degree of overlap between the group of sounds labeled as rounded and those labial sounds. Take the example of the [w] sound, for instance, it is both [+ labial] and [+ round].
Laryngeal features
voiced Vs voiceless [+/- voice] When there is a vibration of the vocal cords at regular intervals, the sound produced in this case is voiced, voiceless sounds are made without such a periodic vibration. All vowels are voiced and consonants are either voiced or voiceless.
Manner features
The features of manner characterize the way in which the airstream is obstructed in the production of consonants. Continuant Vs non-continuant [+/- continuant] Continuants are sounds which are produced by impeding, but not completely blocking, the flow of the air; non-continuants are made by completely blocking the air through the centre of the vocal tract. Affricates, laterals, nasals, and stops are non-continuants All other sounds are continuants
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Lateral Vs non-lateral [+/- lateral] Lateral sounds are produced with the airflow through the centre of the mouth blocked but escapes over one or both sides of the tongue. [ l] is the only lateral liquid in English (the term liquid is conventionally used to refer to sounds similar to the English [ l] and [ r]. Nasal Vs non-nasal (oral) [+/- nasal] A nasal sound is produced when the velum is lowered to allow the air to escape through the nasal cavity. Nasal sounds include nasal stops [ m n ] (these are stops because they are produced with complete blockage of the air at the place where the articulators meet, i.e. in the lips or the alveolar ridge or the velum for [m], [n] and [] respectively), as well as nasalized consonants, glides and vowels. All other sounds are oral or [- nasal].
Prosodic features
Prosodic features have to do with the duration of the production of a sound, its tone and stress. We will cover in this course only those long and short sounds; Long Vs short [+/- long] Length as a feature is clearly relative and undergoes some progression from the shortest to the lengthiest sound. But for the sake of simplicity we will have a binary account of it, that is either [+long] or [- long]. It should be mentioned here that length is a functional distinctive feature in Standard Arabic, i.e. it leads to a change in meaning. Take the example of the following two items that you know. Kataba Kaataba Clearly you can notice the difference in meaning introduced by the lengthening of the vowel [a] from a normal verb to a reflexive one. In English, for example, the contrast between [ ] and [i] (as in seek /sik/ and sick /sk/) is rather being regarded as one between a tense sound versus a lax one. But still we will consider, in this course, that sounds like [ ] as [- long] and sounds like [i] as [+ long].
Example:
Look at the features of the following English sounds.
Table 1: example
Consonantal Continuant Labial Voiced
b + + -
t + + +
u + -
+ + +
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Below you can find some of the distinctive feature we have seen above applied for English consonant phonemes.
Table 2: Distinctive feature matrix for English consonant phonemes p b t d k g f v s z h m n w l r j consonantal approximant sonorant nasal lateral voiced continuant /+ /+
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Chapter Three
What is Assimilation?
Assimilation takes place when there is a modification of a sound in order to make it more similar to some adjacent sound(s). Speakers of a language resort to assimilation in their pronunciation with a view to have a smoother, more effortless and more economical transitions from one sound to another. They usually try to conserve energy by using no more effort than is necessary to produce an utterance. Let us begin by looking at the following sets of words. Consider their pronunciation in each case. Example 1 a. cap [kp] b. tap [tp] Example 2 a. tent [tnt] b. ninety [nanti] Example 3 a. since [sns] b. mince [sns] sink [sk] mink [mk] tenth [tn] ninth [nan] can [kn] tan [tn]
In both examples 1a and 1b, the words differ in two sounds. The vowel in the second word of each pair is nasalized because of the influence of the following nasal consonant. In example 2, the nasal /n/ is dentalized before a dental fricative. In example 3, the alveolar nasal /n/ becomes the velar nasal [] before the velar stop [k]. In this situation, NASALIZATION, DENTALIZATION, and VELARIZATION are all instances of ASSIMILATION, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound, as we have seen above.
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Voice Assimilation
In addition to velarization, nasalization, dentalization and palatalization, assimilation can be in terms of voice as well. For instance, assimilation studies of English fricatives and affricates have shown that their voicing is severely influenced by the voicing of the following sound. The five pairs of English fricatives and affricates are listed in below. List of English fricatives and affricates: f, v, , , s, z, , , , Examples in 6 below show how fricatives and affricates in English may be assimilated in voicing: Example 6 a. five past b. love to c. has to [favpst] [lvt] [hzt] > [fafpst] > [lft] > [hst]
d. as can be shown [zknbn] > [sknbn] e. lose five-nil [luzfavnl] > [lusfavnl]
The first column of symbols shows the way these phrases are pronounced in slow or careful speech while the second column shows how they are pronounced in normal,
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connected speech. Investigations into other sounds reveal that DEVOICING, a process by which voiced sounds become voiceless, in such contexts does not occur with other sounds, such as stops and vowels. These changes exhibit PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES in which an AFFECTED SEGMENT undergoes a structural change in certain ENVIRONMENTS or CONTEXTS. In each process the change is conditioned or triggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a preceding sound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspects to it: (a) a set of sounds to undergo the process; (b) a set of sounds produced by the process; (c) a set of situations in which the process. We can represent the process by means of an arrow: (4) /v/ [f]
Our data have shown that this does not only apply to /v/ but also to other fricatives, like /z/. Therefore, we can make a more general rule to indicate that voiced fricatives are transformed into voiceless fricatives before voiceless segments: (5) voiced fricative voiceless / _____ voiceless
i[n]direct i[]conclusive i[n]dependent i[]considerate i[n]tolerance i[]correct i[n]sufferable i[]complete i[n]sufficient i[]convenient i[]gratitude
Question: what do you notice? Answer: We notice that the nasal in the prefix in- has the same place of articulation as the following consonant: [m] before [p, b, m] [+labial] [n] before [t, d, s] [+alveolar] [] before [k, g] [+velar] We say: the nasal assimilates in place of articulation to its following consonant. Consider the following data: i[n]advisable
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i[n]animate i[n]ordinate i[n]eligible Based on these data, [n] occurs in the most environments: that is, before vowels, t, d and s. Therefore, we want to say that the underlying form of the prefix is /n/. The rule: /n/ [m] / ___ bilabial consonants [ ] / ___ velar consonants [n] elsewhere [p, b, m] [k, g] [t, d, s] and vowels
A formal rule: As you have seen in the above figure, a formal rule should consist of the following: a. The input, which states the sound or sounds affected by the rule, in the above case it is /n/; b. The arrow(s), which means is realized as or becomes; c. What occurs to the right of the arrow(s) is the output of the rule; d. Following the output, there is a diagonal line / , to the right of that line is the environment, the ___ line which forms part of the environment shows precisely where the changed segment is located;
So the rule reads: the prefix /n/ becomes (or is transformed into) [m] when it appears before bilabial consonants, becomes [] when it appears before velar consonants and becomes [n] elsewhere. Nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are also typical phonological processes that can be represented by the following rules: (7) Nasalization rule [nasal] [+nasal] / _____ [+nasal]
(8) Dentalization rule [dental] (9) Velarization rule [velar] [+velar] / _____ [+velar] [+dental] / _____ [+dental]
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What is Morphology?
Morphology is the part of linguistics that deals with the study of words, their internal structure and partially their meanings. It is also interested in how the users of a given language understand complex words and invent new lexical items. As morphology is concerned with word forms it is akin to phonology (which describes how words are pronounced, as we have seen in the first part of this course), it is also related to lexical studies as the patterns examined by morphology are used to create new words. Furthermore, it is also linked with semantics as it deals with the meanings of words, as we shall see in the second semester. Scholars differentiate between derivational morphology and inflectional morphology. The former is concerned with the relationships of different words, and with the ways in which vocabulary items can be built from some elements, as in un-speak-able; while the latter deals with the forms of one word that it takes up depending on its grammatical functions in a sentence. When it comes to English it appears that it rather takes advantage of derivational morphemes rather than inflectional ones. Morphemes in morphology are the smallest units that carry meaning or fulfill some grammatical function. The word house itself consists of one morpheme, and because it can stand by itself it can be called a free morpheme. In the word houses there are two morphemes house, which is free, and s whish is a bound morpheme, because it cannot stand by itself as it would have no meaning. In the second example above the bound morpheme -s was attached to house a free morpheme.
Chapter One
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Basic Concepts
Of Morphological Analysis
We move now from an examination of the smallest segments of language (sounds) to a larger unit (the word). Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words. So, it is necessary to know what a word is. What we mean by a word is not always clear. This is due to the fact that the term word is used to denote quite a good variety of senses. For instance, this term may refer to the word form or to the lexeme.
2 This sentence means she tried to attract him in order to persuade him to do something. www.freewebs.com/hsalhi
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Answer: we should all agree that: The physical word-forms see, sees, seeing, saw, seen SEE sleeps, SLEEP catch, catches, CATCH jump, jumps, JUMP Tall, TALL boy, BOY woman, WOMAN are realizations of the lexeme
As we have seen above, when we use the term word, it is not always the abstract vocabulary item or dictionary entry that is meant. Rather, we use that term to refer to a particular physical realization of that lexeme, that is a particular WORD-FORM. Example: The verb lexeme SEE, has the word-forms see, sees, seeing, saw, seen The adjective lexeme GOOD, has the word-forms good, better, and best However, any sense the term word takes, it is still possible to decompose it into smaller units, namely morphemes, morphs, and allomorphs.
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Examples (English)
Unladylike The word unladylike consists of three morphemes and four syllables. Morpheme breaks:
un- 'not' lady '(well behaved) female adult human' -like 'having the characteristics of'
None of these morphemes can be broken up any more without losing all sense of meaning. Lady cannot be broken up into "la" and "dy," even though "la" and "dy" are separate syllables. Note that each syllable has no meaning on its own. Dogs The word dogs consists of two morphemes and one syllable: dog, and -s, a plural marker on nouns Note that a morpheme like "-s" can just be a single phoneme and does not have to be a whole syllable. Technique The word technique consists of only one morpheme having two syllables. Even though the word has two syllables, it is a single morpheme because it cannot be broken down into smaller meaningful parts.
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Chapter Two
Types of Morphemes
After seeing that words have internal structure in the previous chapter, the time is ripe to examine the elements that ensure the building of words, so, we are going to see, in this chapter, the types of morphemes. Let us start by roots and affixes.
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A BASE is an element (free or bound, root morpheme or complex word) to which additional morphemes are added. A base can consist of a single root morpheme, as with the 'kind' of 'kindness'. But a base can also be a word that itself contains more than one morpheme. Example: (English) We can use the word 'kindness' as a base to form the word 'kindnesses'; to make 'kindnesses', we add the plural morpheme, spelled '-es' in this case, to the base 'kindness'. The STEM is that part of a word that is in existence before any inflectional affixes (i.e. those affixes whose presence is required by the syntax such as markers of plural in nouns, tense in verbs, etc.) have been added. Inflection shall be discussed in the following section. In other words, A stem is the root or roots of a word, together with any derivational affixes, to which inflectional affixes are added. Example: (English) The verbs tie and untie are both stems. The inflectional third person singular suffix -s may be added to the stems to form ties and unties.
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safe/unsafe Suffix '-ous' Prefix 're-' Suffix 'able' Noun Verb Verb Changes to adjective Repeat action Changes to adjective; means 'can undergo action of verb' fame/famous, glamor/glamorous tie/retie, write/rewrite print/printable, drink/drinkable
As for inflectional morphemes, they do not engender any change of the above mentioned kinds, but rather they are required by the syntax such as markers of plural in nouns, tense in verbs, etc., as we have seen above. See the table below for a list by the frequently used inflectional morphemes in English (all of them are suffixes). It should be mentioned that English has no inflectional prefixes but some other languages do.
Note that the above listed inflectional morphemes fall within what we call REGULAR INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY, and that you are also required to master the IRREGULAR INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY. The below table shows some English irregular inflectional morphemes: Irregular inflectional morphology: Type of irregularity Noun plurals
Unusual suffix Change of stem vowel oxen, syllabi, antennae foot/feet, mouse/mice
plural book-s -s verb 3rd person, singular, present sleep-s tense Change in base/stem , send/sent, bend/bent, -ed verb past tense walk-ed form (sometimes think/thought, verb progressive (action) walkwith unusual suffix) teach/taught, in buy/bought g Zero-marking (no deer, sheep, hit, beat -er adjectiv comparative degree tall-er suffix, no stem moose, fish e change) adjectiv superlative degree tall-est e
write/written, do/done, break/broken, fly/flown send/sent, bend/bent, think/thought, teach/taught, buy/bought hit, beat, come
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Chapter Three
Major processes
The below mentioned word formation processes are the most frequent or important in the English language.
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Derivation is probably the most common word formation process in the English language. It is achieved by adding affixes: prefixes are added at the beginning of a word, suffixes added to the end of a word, or infixes which are inserted inside a word, but infixes are unusual in English and are especially common in Semitic languages like Standard Arabic. English prefixes include for example re-, un-, mis-, pre-, dis-; suffixes include for instance -ful, -less, -able, -or.
2.2. Compounding
Compounding is a process in which two different words are joined together to denote one thing. For example flower-pot is a compound made of two words: flower and pot, but it does not denote two things, it refers to one object. Some English compounds include: windmill, waterfall, fingerprint, scarecrow. Compounds are pronounced as one unit, but sometimes difficulties in writing arise: some compounds are written with hyphens: full-time; some are written separately: bank account, mini skirt; and some can be written in both ways.
2.3. Conversion
Conversion or zero derivation process is a change in function of a verb without changing its form. Nouns start to be used as verbs like: bottle to bottle, bottling as in Im bottling the compote; butter to butter, buttered as in Ive buttered the bread. Also verbs can become nouns: must a must as in Watching this film is a must; guess a guess as in It was a lucky guess.
Minor Processes
Other minor word-formation processes in English are also productive, the most productive ones are explained below. Blending is very similar to compounding, but it is characterized by taking only parts of words and joining them. Famous English examples include: smog which combines smoke and fog, motel made of motor and hotel, Spanglish which is combination of Spanish and English; and guesstimate, from guess and estimate. Borrowing is taking a word from one language and incorporating it into another. The English language has been very absorbent and took over words from all over the world, some of them include: biology, boxer, ozone from German; jackal, kiosk, yogurt from Turkish; pistol, robot from Czech. Acronym is a word formed from initial letters of a few words in a phrase or a name. Some acronyms are pronounced by saying each letter separately, as in CD, DVD, VCR, IBM, FBI. Some are pronounced as words, like NATO, laser, AIDS, UNESCO. Backformation is a process in which a word changes its form and function. Word of one type, which is usually a noun, is reduced and used as a verb. To show it on an example: the English word arms meaning weapon was backformed to arm to mean provide weapons, similarly edit was backformed from editor, or typewrite from typewriter.
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Required Texts:
Katamba, Francis (1989) An Introduction to Phonology. Longman Group UK Limited.
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]+ [sonorant ]-- [sonorant sonorant obstruent )( . sonorants obstruents . nasals sonorant affricates obstruent
2.
. . ] labials[ ][ ] +[ .labiality ]+ / -- [ ) ( . . ][ ]+ [ ]+ [.
3.
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4.
]+ / -- [ . .
5.
. Continuant [continuant [+ / -- continuant Continuants continuants . Affricates nasals continuants continuants ]+ / -- [ . ][ ) ][ ][. ) ( ]+ / -- [ . ] mnnbsp ) [ N ][ ] [ ] [ ( nasalized . ]-- [.
6.
. ]+ / -- [ . ]+ [ ]-- [.
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. . Kataba Kaataba ][ . ] [ ][ ) / / / /(
. ] [ ]-- [ ][ ]+ [. :
. 1 : -- + + + Consonantal + -- -- -- Continuant + + -- + -- + -- +
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+ -- N + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + -- + + -- + - -- -- -- -- -- + + + + --- -- -- + + + + + + + --- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --consonantal approximant sonorant continuant
-- -- -- -- -- -- + + + + + + + + + -- -- -- + + + + -- / + -- / +
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--+
- ---- --
- -- -- + + + -- -- ---- -- -- -- -- -- -- + --
- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ---- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
-- + -- + -- + -- + -- + -- + -- + -- + + + + + + + --
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allophony allophonic . allophonic . allophonic .
1.
)(. . . . . 1 ] [kp ][ . ] [tp ][tn 2 ] [ NT ] [ . ] ninety [ NTI ] [ 3 ] [ ] [ . ] [ ] [ 1A 1b . " "nasalized . 2 " "dentalized/ / . 3 / / ] [N ][. dentalization www.freewebs.com/hsalhi
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2.
velarization dentalization . affricates . affricates . : affricates 6 affricates : 6 ] VP [< ] FP [ . ] ] <[ VT [ )( ][hzt ]> [hst . ] ZK [< ] SK [ . ] LU zfa VN [< ] LU SFA VN [ . devoicing .
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3.
) (. ] [ ] [ ][ N ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ : : -- : ][ ] [ ]+ [ ][ ] [ ]+ [ ] [N ] [ ]+ [ : .
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][ ][ ][ ][ ] [ : . / /. : ] [ / ___ ] [ / / ] ___ / [ N ] [ ] [ ] [ : :
/ / .a )( '' ' .b )( .c '/' '___' .d
: / / ) " "( ] [ ] [ N ] [ . dentalization velarization : )7( ]- [ ]+ [ / _____ ]+ [ )8( Dentalization ][ ]+ [ / _____ ]+ [ )9( Velarization ]- [ ]+ [ / _____ ]+ [
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. . ) ( . . Scholars differentiate between derivational morphology and inflectional morphology. The former is concerned with the relationships of different words, and with the ways in which vocabulary items can be built from some elements, as in unspeak-able ; while the latter deals with the forms of one word that it takes up depending on its grammatical functions in a sentence. When it comes to English it appears that it rather takes advantage of derivational morphemes rather than .inflectional ones Morphemes in morphology are the smallest units that carry meaning or fulfill some grammatical function. The word house itself consists of one morpheme, and because it can stand by itself it can be called a free morpheme . In the word houses there are two morphemes house, which is free, and s whish is a bound morpheme , because it cannot stand by itself as it would have no meaning. In the second example above the bound morpheme - s was attached .to house a free morpheme
Of Morphological Analysis We move now from an examination of the smallest segments of language (sounds) to a larger unit (the word). Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words. So, it is necessary to know what a word is. What we mean by a word is not always clear. This is due to the fact that the term 'word' is used to denote quite a good variety of senses. For instance, this term may refer to the word form or to the .lexeme
What would you do if you come across a difficult word, say the word ?'flutter' , for the first time in the below context
She flattered eyelashes at him 2
You would probably look up that unfamiliar word in the dictionary, not under flattered, but rather flatter . This is because you know that flattered is not going to be listed in the dictionary. You also know, without consulting anybody, that the words fluttering and flutters will exist. Moreover, you know that fluttering, flutter, flattered and flutters are all different of the same abstract vocabulary item. This abstract vocabulary item is calledLEXEME. So, the forms fluttering, flutter, flattered and flutters are REALISATIONS (or representations or manifestations) of the lexeme FLUTTER (lexemes are conventionally written in capital letters). They all share a core meaning although they are spelled or pronounced differently. Therefore, we can define a lexeme as the vocabulary item that is listed in the dictionary; .in short it is a dictionary entry : which ones of the words in the table below belong to the same : ?lexeme catching jumped tall catches sleeps
jumps slept
The physical word-forms are realizations of the lexeme see, sees, seeing, saw, seen SEE sleeps, sleeping, slept SLEEP catch, catches, catching, caught CATCH jump, jumps, jumped, jumping JUMP Tall, taller, tallest TALL boy, boys BOY woman, women WOMAN :Answer: we should all agree that :Answer: we should all agree that As we have seen above, when we use the term 'word', it is not always the abstract vocabulary item or dictionary entry that is meant. Rather, we use that term to refer to a particular physical realization of that .lexeme, that is a particular WORD-FORM :
The verb lexeme SEE, has the word-forms see, sees, seeing, saw, seen www.freewebs.com/hsalhi
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The adjective lexeme GOOD, has the word-forms good, better , and best
However, any sense the term 'word' takes, it is still possible to decompose .it into smaller units, namely morphemes, morphs, and allomorphs
.2
Morphemes .2.1 Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units in a language. Free morphemes are morphemes that can stand alone as a word, while bound morphemes cannot stand alone. Most bound morphemes are affixes , which (for English) fall into two broad groups,prefixes (attaching to the .(beginning of the stem) and suffixes (attaching to the end of a stem Morphemes with an independent meaning are called content/lexical morphemes, while morphemes that only provide grammatical information are called function /grammatical morphemes. Bear in mind not to confuse between .(morphemes (units of meaning) and syllables (units of articulation (Examples (English
Unladylike .The word unladylike consists of three morphemes and four syllables o :Morpheme breaks o 'un- 'not 'lady '(well behaved) female adult human 'like 'having the characteristics of None of these morphemes can be broken up any more without losing all o sense of meaning. Lady cannot be broken up into "la" and "dy," even though "la" and "dy" are separate syllables. Note that each syllable has no meaning .on its own :The word dogs consists of two morphemes and one syllable o dog, and s, a plural marker on nouns Note that a morpheme like "-s" can just be a single phoneme and does o .not have to be a whole syllable The word technique consists of only one morpheme having two o .syllables Even though the word has two syllables, it is a single morpheme o .because it cannot be broken down into smaller meaningful parts
Morphs and allomorphs .2.2 Consider the following words and comment on how their plural is formed, ignoring . their spelling ?How is the plural morpheme realized
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.1 .2 .3
The actual shapes morphemes which are abstract units occur in, are called morphs . Two or several morphs realizing one morpheme are called allomorphs of that morpheme. Thus, the {plural} morpheme of English has several allomorphs. Allomorphs whose occurrence can be predicted from the phonological context (like the voiced/voiceless plural allomorphs) are called phonologically conditioned , while 'irregular' allomorphs that only occur . with certain unpredictable words are called lexically conditioned So, any language has a register of morphemes, the physical realizations of which are called morphs, as we have seen. While morphemes remain ideal abstract units, the corresponding morphs may show some variation. In the above case of the plural morpheme, for instance, various realizations are possible. These variations sound :and look differently ;".z/ in "dogs, beds, etc/ ;".s/ in "cats, rats, etc/ " .iz/ in "garages, wish, etc/ All three morphs are different representations of the same morpheme of plurality. Several morphs that belong to the same morpheme are also called allomorphs : variants of one morpheme. In morphological transcription, morphs are commonly put between braces. The plural morph in "cats" thus becomes {cat}+{s} in .morphological transcription
Types of Morphemes
After seeing that words have internal structure in the previous chapter, the time is ripe to examine the elements that ensure the building of words, so, we are going to see, in this chapter, the types of .morphemes. Let us start by roots and affixes
.1
A ROOT is a (usually free) morpheme around which words can be built up through the addition of affixes. The root usually has a more-specific meaning than the affixes that attach to it. eg.: The root 'kind' can have affixes added to it to form 'kindly', 'kindness', 'kinder', 'kindest'. The root is the item you have left when you strip all other morphemes off of a complex word. In the word ' dehumanizing' , for example, if you strip off all the affixes -ing, -ize, and de-, human is what you have left. It cannot be divided further into meaningful parts. It is the root .of the word
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An AFFIX is a bound morpheme which attaches to a base (root or stem). PREFIXES attach to the front of a base; SUFFIXES to the end of a base;INFIXES are inserted inside of a root. An example of a prefix is .'the 're-' of 'rewrite'; of a suffix, '-al' of 'critical
.2
A BASE is an element (free or bound, root morpheme or complex word) to which additional morphemes are added. A base can consist of a single root morpheme, as with the 'kind' of 'kindness'. But a base can also .be a word that itself contains more than one morpheme (Example: (English
We can use the word 'kindness' as a base to form the word 'kindnesses'; to make 'kindnesses', we add the plural morpheme, spelled '-es' in this case, to the .'base 'kindness
The STEM is that part of a word that is in existence before any inflectional affixes (ie those affixes whose presence is required by the syntax such as markers of plural in nouns, tense in verbs, etc.) have been added. Inflection shall be discussed in the following section. In other words, A stem is theroot or roots of a word, together with .any derivational affixes , to which inflectional affixes are added (Example: (English
.The verbs ' tie' and ' untie' are both stems The inflectional third person singular suffix -s may be added to the stems to . 'form ' ties' and ' unties
.3
Bound morphemes can be divided into two major functional categories, namely DERIVATIONAL MORPHEMES and INFLECTIONAL MORPHEMES . These two categories reflect two main word-building processes, namely derivation and inflection . This is because derivational and inflectional morphemes form words in different ways. Derivational :form new words either
By changing the meaning of the base to which it is attached; .a eg kind vs unkind (both are adjectives but with opposite .(meanings); obey and disobey (both are verbs but with opposite meanings By changing the word-class that a base belongs to, for example the addition of .b .ly to the adjectives kind and simple produces the adverbs kind-ly and simp-ly By changing the grammatical sub-class of a word without moving it into a new .c .(word-class (as in the case of friend (noun) and friend-ship (another noun
Below is a sample of some English derivational affixes . This is only a sample; there .are far more affixes than presented here Some derivational affixes of English www.freewebs.com/hsalhi Page 51 of 27
As for inflectional morphemes, they do not engender any change of the above mentioned kinds, but rather they are required by the syntax such as markers of plural in nouns, tense in verbs, etc., as we have seen above. See the table below for a list by the frequently used inflectional morphemes in English (all of them are suffixes). It should be mentioned that English has no inflectional prefixes but some .other languages do book-s sleep-s walked walking tall-er tall-est
rd
Note that the above listed inflectional morphemes fall within what we call REGULAR INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY , and that you are also required to master the IRREGULAR INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY. The : below table shows some English irregular inflectional morphemes :Irregular inflectional morphology
Verbs: past participle Verbs: past tense Noun Type of
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plurals
tak en , see n , fall en , eat en ox en , syllab i , antenn ae foot/f ee t, mouse/m ice
irregularity
Unusual suffix
swim/sw u m, sing/s u ng
run/r a n, come/c a me, flee/fl e d, meet/m e t, fly/fl ew , stick/st u ck, get/g o t, break/br oke feel/f e l t , kneel/kn e l t
Change of stem vowel with unusual suffix Change in base/stem form (sometimes with (unusual suffix Zero-marking (no suffix, no stem (change
send/sen t , bend/ben t , send/sen t , bend/ben t , think/thought , think/th ought , teach/t aught , teach/t aught , buy/b ought buy/bought hit, beat, come hit, beat
Word Formation
.1
Although the terms ' WORD FORMATION ' do not have nowadays a clear-cut, universally accepted usage, they are conventionally used to refer to all processes connected with changing the form of the word by, for example, affixation, which is a matter of morphology . In its wider sense word formation denotes the processes of creation of new lexical units. Although it seems that the difference between morphological change of a word and creation of a new term are quite easy to perceive there is sometimes a dispute as to whether blending is still a .morphological change or making a new word There are, of course, numerous word formation processes that do not arouse any :controversies and are very similar in the majority of languages
Major processes
.2
The below mentioned word formation processes are the most frequent or .important in the English language
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Derivation or affixation .2.1 Derivation is probably the most common word formation process in the English language. It is achieved by adding affixes: prefixes are added at the beginning of a word, suffixes added to the end of a word, or infixes which are inserted inside a word, but infixes are unusual in English and are especially common in Semitic languages like Standard Arabic. English prefixes include for example re-, un-, .mis-, pre-, dis-; suffixes include for instance -ful, -less, -able, -or Compounding .2.2 Compounding is a process in which two different words are joined together to denote one thing. For example flower-pot is a compound made of two words: flower and pot, but it does not denote two things, it refers to one object. Some English compounds include: windmill, waterfall, fingerprint, scarecrow. Compounds are pronounced as one unit, but sometimes difficulties in writing arise: some compounds are written with hyphens: full-time; some are written separately: bank .account, mini skirt; and some can be written in both ways 3.2. Conversion or zero derivation process is a change in function of a verb without changing its form. Nouns start to be used as verbs like: bottle to bottle, bottling as in I'm bottling the compote; butter to butter, buttered as in I've buttered the bread. Also verbs can become nouns: must a must as in Watching this film is a must; .guess a guess as in It was a lucky guess
Minor Processes
.3
Other minor word-formation processes in English are also productive, the .most productive ones are explained below
Blending is very similar to compounding, but it is characterized by taking only parts of words and joining them. Famous English examples include: smog which combines smoke and fog , motel made of motor and hotel , Spanglish which is . combination of Spanish and English ; and guesstimate , from guess andestimate Borrowing is taking a word from one language and incorporating it into another. The English language has been very absorbent and took over words from all over the world, some of them include: biology, boxer, ozone from German; jackal, .kiosk, yogurt from Turkish; pistol, robot from Czech Acronym is a word formed from initial letters of a few words in a phrase or a name. Some acronyms are pronounced by saying each letter separately, as in CD, .DVD, VCR, IBM, FBI. Some are pronounced as words, like NATO, laser, AIDS, UNESCO Backformation is a process in which a word changes its form and function. Word of one type, which is usually a noun, is reduced and used as a verb. To show it on an example: the English word arms meaning weapon was backformed to arm to mean provide weapons, similarly edit was backformed from editor, or typewrite from .typewriter
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:Required Texts
.Katamba, Francis (1989) An Introduction to Phonology . Longman Group UK Limited Katamba, Francis (1993) Morphology , MACMILLAN Press LTD
. www.freewebs.com/hsalhi .This web site shall be my means of communication to you and vice versa ,In addition to courses, you shall find the notifications I want to convey to you especially those related to your exam. As for you, you can write to me and to your colleagues using the Guestbook page you shall find on the left of the main page or any ,other page, as shown below, or you go directly to the contact me page .there you can find a link also Thanks for your interest in . linguistics and the Internet .
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: :
,press on the post entry button after you finish your remark then you will see it posted in 30 seconds
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