Application of Solar Energy SOLAR GREENHOUSES

Course: Academic Year: Students:

Solar Energy Application (MECH64909) Year 2002 2003 Semester 2 Lau Sai Kit (1997140485) Ho Kin Wai (1997053747) April 22, 2003

Date of Submission:

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Content 1 2 3 4 Introduction History of Greenhouse Greenhouse Structural System Greenhouse Components 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 5 Structural Frame Glazing Heating System Cooling and Ventilation System Shading Curtains P.3 P.4 P.6 P.8 P.8 P.8 P.12 P.12 P.14 P.14 P.14 P.14 P.15 P.16 P.20

Greenhouse Design 5.1 5.2 South Facing Wall North Facing Wall

6. 7.

Greenhouse construction check-off list Conclusion

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Introduction

Greenhouse is one of the most commonly seen passive solar energy applications. Its prime function is to provide and maintain an environment, such as indoor temperature, that results in the profitable production of high quality crops or plants. A greenhouse could be as simple as plastic films supported by wires, and yet it could help to raise the inner temperature when you place this simple greenhouse over your plants. However, a greenhouse could also be as sophisticated as our globe, in which solar energy is retained by the greenhouse gasses, for example carbon dioxide. Also in commercial applications, greenhouse technology has been proven to be economical efficient in construction and operation. The design of greenhouse should be tailored made according to each individual proposed location. Not only technical aspects, such as elevation of site, topography, climate factors, greenhouse structure, materials of construction, but also other factors, for example capital availability, interest rates, types of crops, availability of shipping facilities and main roads, supply of electricity and water, should be considered during the planning of greenhouse.

Figure 1. Simple greenhouse with film supported by wires

Figure 2. Large scale commercial greenhouse

The principle why a greenhouse could maintain a higher indoor temperature than the ambient temperature is that the greenhouse is covered by glazing which allows solar

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energy to pass freely and retain inside thereafter. Consider how a single glass sheet functions. The dominant part of the heat that would, in the absence of the glazing, pass so freely through the aperture to the outside, is thermal radiation. For the glazing to suppress this radiation and still allow the solar radiation to pass may s eem to be a contradictory requirement. however, solar radiation is carried in wavelengths ranging from about 0.3 to 3gm, while radiation from materials behind the glazing is carried in wavelengths ranging from 3 to 50gm. For easy reference, it is common to follow the terminology of giving the name short-wave to the radiation from the sun, and the name long-waveto the radiation from bodies behind the glazing. The single glass pane has the desirable property of allowing most of the short-wave radiation to pass and yet not directly passing any of the long-wave radiation, and so it is suited to our purpose. But we need to bear in mind that the single glass sheet does not eliminate the heat flow that would ordinarily pass to the environment; it only suppresses it somewhat. 2 History of Greenhouse

Greenhouses have come a long way since the wealthy Europeans and Americans used them to grow oranges and pineapples in glass structures known as orangeries and pineries. These structures became status symbols as well as a practical way to grow fruits, vegetables and exotic plants. One of the earliest known greenhouses was built around 30 A.D. for the Roman emperor Tiberius. Remember glass had not been invented so the "Specularium" was painstakingly fabricated from tiny translucent sheets of mica. All this was done to satisfy Tiberius's cravings for cucumbers out of season. It wasn't until 1599 that the first practical greenhouse was designed by Jules Charles a French botanist. It was built in (where else) Leiden Holland and used primarily to grow medicinal tropical plants. One of the favorite plants of the day came from the Tamarind (an Indian date) whose fruit was made into a curative drink. The idea caught on and greenhouses began spreading throughout Europe. The F rench, who had a love of a new fruit, the orange, began building orangeries to protect the trees from frost. These structures were cumbersome. One structure built by Soloman de Caus in 1619 in Heidelburg which held 340 orange trees. It had a removable roof that had to be painstakingly put up and taken down during the frost season.

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Experimenting with angled glass walls and heating flues to improve the efficiency of greenhouses went on throughout the 17th century. New technologies and improved glass led to l rger and more elaborate structures that housed plants simply to please the eyes a and palates of the European aristocracy. The palace of Versailles was an example of the elaborate efforts of the royalty to build bigger and more spectacular orangeries. The Versailles orangery was more than 500 feet long, 42 feet wide, and 45 feet high. It had a southern exposure for light and heat. Despite the elaborateness of these structures, it was the Victorian age in England that ushered in the golden era of the greenhouse. By the end of the mid nineteenth century glass was plentiful and the prohibitive taxes were repealed. The wealthy began competing with each other to build the most elaborate greenhouse, again primarily just to grow citrus fruits and rare flowers. Little thought was given to using the greenhouse for a complete range of food production. The soaring conservatory at Kew Gardens in England is a prime example of the Victorian greenhouse. There is a replica in San Fransisco's Golden Gate Park called the Conservatory of Flowers. In America the first greenhouse on record was built around 1737 by Andrew Faneuil, a wealthy Boston merchant. Like his European predecessors, Faneuil used it primarily to grow fruit. The concept spread slowly, since almost all greenhouses were built for the wealthy. George Washington, perhaps the richest man in America, craved pineapples and ordered a pinery built at Mt. Vernon so he could serve pineapples to his guests. By 1825, greenhouses were becoming increasingly common. Many of the greenhouses were heated by furnaced-warmed air; some were pit greenhouses built into the earth and heated largely by south facing windows. This is a design that remains highly practical today. Indeed the modern concept of the greenhouse is simple and practical. No longer is it the private domain of the monied class but something anyone interested in gardening can have for relatively little cost. Today a greenhouse can go virtually anywhere there is space; it can be attached to a house, placed in a backyard or perched on a deck, roof or

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balcony. In addition greenhouses are becoming more automated, reducing the time and care owners much spend. With new materials available today such as aluminum, pvc piping, fiberglass, acrylic, and polycarbonate panels as well as pressure treated wood ensures the consumer that their greenhouse will stand the test of time. Long gone are the days of shattered glass and overheated/under heated greenhouses. 3 Greenhouse Structural System

Just like any kind of structures, greenhouse has its own structural system. The structure must withstand loads imposed by dead and live loads. The dead load on a structure consists of the weight of the structure and the weights of any fixed equipment and suspended plant material. It is a constant load and can be calculated from the weights of building materials and equipment. Live loads are temporary loads produced by the operation of the structure, such as workers climbing on the roof for maintenance, wind loads, rain loads and snow loads. The National Greenhouse Manufacturers Association (NGMA) has publishes a series of standards that gives guidance for the calculation of design loads for greenhouse. Another requirement for the design of greenhouse structure is that the structural members should not create too much shadowing areas inside. The appearances of various greenhouses could be different in design, as shown in Figure 3. The simplest type is the shade structure composed of shade cloth supported on poles. This type is inexpensive, but is only practical in warm climates. It is also susceptible to wind damage.

Figure 3. Various designs of greenhouse structures

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Heavier structures are needed when cold protection is necessary. The most common type is the ridge and furrow house, which is easy to maintain and heat and has a long life. Large ridge and furrow designs reduce heat transmission through walls. Problems with air movement may occur with very large ridge and furrow houses. Care must also be taken with the design of gutters, and the extra load of rain water in the gutters must be considered. A sawtooth house is relatively inexpensive and is easy to ventilate and cool, but may experience winter heating problems.

Figure 4. Arched ridge and furrow greenhouse

Quonset houses are simple in design, and inexpensive to construct. They are normally covered with externally applied plastic glazing. Strong fasteners at the ends and edges are very important. They provide clear-span interiors with minimal shading, but the curved side wall may place height restrictions on crops unless high foundation supports are used. High foundations increase the potential for wind damage. Quonset houses may suffer from ventilation problems.

Figure 5. Quonset house

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Structures with post and rafter, A frame construction, or trusses are easy to build but require the use of more material than other designs. They have clear span interiors, but should be limited to 20 foot widths when wood is used as the building material. This type of construction is normally used with wood frames and plastic film glazing. It requires strong sidewall posts with deep embedment to withstand outward rafter forces and wind loads. A frame construction uses a collar beam to strengthen the structure, producing wider houses than are possible with post and rafter construction. Rigid frame construction provides high strength for the amount of material used. It can be used with wood or metal frames, and gives a clear span interior. Post and truss designs give large unobstructed floor spaces, but trusses obstruct gable spaces and shade the floor area. 4 Greenhouse Components

4.1 Structural Frame Greenhouse is built on a structural frame. Frames can be constructed of many different materials arranged in different systems. Aluminum frames are l ng lasting, corrosion o resistant, lightweight, and can be prefabricated. They can be permanently glazed and have low maintenance requirements. Aluminum frames have a high initial cost and require the services of experienced personnel ducting construction. Galvanized steel frames offer high strength and long life at less expense than aluminum frames, although maintenance of steel frames may be higher. Metals are god conductors of heat, and the heat loss through an aluminum or steel makes it possible to use small structural elements, minimizing shading caused by the frame. Wood frames have a low initial cost, but have high maintenance costs. They are also flammable. Painting wooden frames white will improve lighting conditions within the house. Wood should be pressure treated with preservative to inhibit decay. 4.2 Glazing One of the most important components of a greenhouse is the glazing material because it would determine the performance of the greenhouse significantly. Several types of

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glazing materials are used by the greenhouse industry. Glass is an excellent material when its high initial cost can be tolerated. It has a life of twenty five years or longer, has low maintenance requirements and transmits light well. However, it requires skilled labor for construction, and has a low impact strength. Thus high strength grades of glass should be used for glazing. Glass is heavy and requires strong framing with large supports that block light. Synthetic sheets and films have replaced glass as the glazing material used in most greenhouses. The most widely used material is polyethylene film. This material is low in cost, lightweight, easy to apply in wide sheets, and has a high light transmittance. Unfortunately, it also has a very short life. Regular grades have a lifetime of only nine months. Ultraviolet stabilized grades, which last from eighteen months to three years, still require more frequent replacement than most other glazing materials. Common grades of polyethylene are transparent to infrared radiation. New grades are now available that block infrared radiation and reduce greenhouse heat losses. Other plastic materials have been considered for greenhouse use with some amount of success, but their advantages are usually outweighed by their higher cost compared to polyethylene. Some of those which have been used are polyvinyl chloride films and sheets, polyvinyl fluoride films (Tedlar), polycarbonate sheets, and acrylic sheets. Fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP) sheets are used widely for glazing material. They are relatively low in cost, but more expensive than polyethylene. They are lightweight and impact resistant compared to glass. They have a fairly high light transmittance that is slightly less than that of glass or polyethylene, and they are easy to fabricate. FRP sheets degrade when exposed to ultraviolet light. Their ultraviolet resistance is improved by the use of Tedlar coatings and acrylic additions to the polyester resin. Glazing materials must transmit the maximum of amount of sunlight to the crop while also holding heat gain or loss to a minimum. The use of double layers of film can add insulating value to the glazing system with only a small reduction in light transmittance. When polyethylene film is used, this system is called double poly and utilizes an air space inflated by a small fan to provide good insulating characteristics. When compared to a single layer of polyethylene film, the double poly system can provide reductions of 35 to 40 percent in heat loss with a 10 percent reduction in light transmittance.

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Rigid, double-walled acrylic and polycarbonate glazing panels are becoming available. They are relatively high in cost and are subject to thermal expansion, requiring that attention be given to edge seals. They do offer good insulating value and can be formed into arched shaped, reducing or eliminating the need for internal framing members. Studies are underway testing the injection of a liquid foam or lightweight, polystyrene foam beads between two layers of covering. These materials are injected during the night and removed and stored during the day. Both methods are under study and are not yet perfected for general use. As mentioned before, glazing does not eliminate the heat flow that would ordinarily pass to the environment; it only suppresses it somewhat. One way to improve the situation is to put a coating on the glass that reflects the long wave radiation but is transparent to short wave radiation. In other words, what we need is a material that transmits solar radiation well but insulates against the flow of heat: a transparent insulator. Some of these innovations have now reached commercial acceptance, for example, low -e, argon-filled glazing and the honeycomb. Others, such as evacuated glazings and aerogels, are still in development. While most of the greenhouses are designed by using the winter or spring ambient conditions, the problem of overheating may be occurring during the summer seasons. With the more highly advanced glazings, overheating can even occur in the winter during periods of sunny weather. Ways of minimizing the heat gain through glazings in periods of possible overheating are needed, and indeed these have been and are under development. Smart glazing can adjust their optical and thermal properties according to the need. In the following Table, we will compare several coverings in different factors such as light transmission, U factor, insulating value, and lifetime:

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Covering

Advantages

Disadvantages

Light Transmission

U Factor Insulating Estimated Cost per Value, R Lifetime Sq. Ft (US$)

Single

Inexpensive,

Short life

85%

1.2

.83

1 to 4 years

$.06

Polyethylene easy to install Film Double Polyethylene Film Corrugated High Scratches easily 91% 1.2 .83 Ditto Ditto 77% .70 1.43

1 to 4 years

$.12

15 plus years

$1.00

Polycarbonate transmittance, high impact resistance Glass Double Strength High transmittance, high UV resistance, resists scratching Glass Insulated 8mm Twin Wall Polycarbonate High impact resistance, saves on heating costs 16mm Double Wall Polycarbonate 16mm Triple Wall Ditto Ditto 81% .42 2.38 Ditto Ditto 81% .55 1.82 Requires glazing system to install, scratches easily 82% .62 1.61 Ditto High cost, difficult installation, low impact resistance, high maintenance Ditto 78% .70 1.43 88% 1.1 .91

25 plus years

$2.00

25 plus years 15 plus years

$5.00

$1.50

15 plus years

$3.10

15 plus years

$3.10

Table 1. Greenhouse Coverings Comparison

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4.3 Heating System Heating system may be required to balance the heat loss of greenhouse during extreme cold condition. It must maintain a uniform temperature within the house while producing no harmful fumes. Forced air systems are the most common in new greenhouses. They are relatively inexpensive and have low maintenance requirements. Heated air is supplied by unit heaters of furnaces. Other possible solutions are steam and hot water systems or solar systems. 4.4 Cooling and Ventilation System Greenhouses operating under summer conditions require cooling systems for optimum plant growth and worker efficiency. Ventilation can reduce the inside temperature to close to that of the outside air. Natural ventilation using ridge and side vents is satisfactory for many operations. Cooler outside air enters through side vents and is distributed throughout the structure. The critical factor for cooling greenhouses with roof and side vents is the rate of air exchange by free convection. This exchange rate is influenced by total vent area, windspeed, and the temperature difference between the indoor and outdoor air. A total vent area equivalent to 15 to 30 percent of the floor area is recommended for effective cooling. Vent areas greater than 30 percent result in very little increase in cooling. An air exchange rate of 1 air change per minute is required to maintain a difference of 5.5 deg C or less between indoor and outdoor temperatures. The inside temperature of the greenhouse can rise to levels 8 deg F to 11 deg F above ambient temperatures when natural convection is used alone. Vents are assumed to be sealed and insulated during winter seasons.

Figure 6. Greenhouse with roof vents and side vents

Forced convection using fans can lower air temperatures 2.5 deg C to 5.5 deg C below

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those found in greenhouses cooled by natural convection only. The opening through which the air enters the greenhouse must be relatively large and extend across the entire wall on which it is located, or non-uniform airflow patterns and temperature distribution will result.

Figure 7. Forced convection with fans installed on side walls

Forced convection alone may not reduce temperatures to the desired levels. Evaporative cooling can be used to produce lower temperatures when this is the case. The most commonly used system of evaporative cooling is the fan and pad system. Water is applied to the pad material as air is being drawn through the pads by fans located on the opposite side of the greenhouse. Evaporative cooling produces two changes in the condition of the air exiting the pads. The air is cooler and its humidity has been raised. High pressure mist or fog cooling is another method of greenhouse cooling. Water is sprayed into the air above the plants at a pressure of 350 to 700 kPa through low capacity nozzles (2.5 to 3.5 litres per hour). A fine mist or fog fills the structure and as the droplets evaporate, and fall, they cool the air. The cooling achieved from high pressure fog or mist is comparable to that obtained from a fan and pad system, but some problems have been experienced with nozzles clogging. Mist or fog systems can provide more uniform temperature distributions than fan and pad systems and also provide uniform high humidity levels. The large quantity of heat that must be removed, dehumidification of the air, the capital investment in equipment, operating costs, and maintenance problems limit the use of mechanical refrigeration in greenhouse cooling.

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4.5 Shading Shading is used to control light and lower interior temperatures. Liquid shading provides a coating that blocks the sun rays. The main problem with liquid shading compounds is s that once applied, their shading density is not easily changed, and they often must be removed in the fall. A liquid shading compound must be designed to diffuse light rays and reflect heat. It must be formulated so that it will not have harmful effects on the glazing material. Several factors to be consider when choosing a liquid shading compound are: ease of application and removal, effects on the crop, and cost of the material. Fabric shade cloths can also be used to screen out unwanted amounts of radiation. Shades can be coupled with cloth moving devices to provide movable curtains that offer some amount of control of the house temperature. The shade cloth should be mounted on the exterior side of the glazing for the greatest reduction in the heat load. 4.6 Curtains During nighttime or cloudy days, not must sunlight is available and the heat lost from greenhouses to the ambient may be significant. In order to cater for this problem, interior curtains may be installed to reduce the thermal conductivity of a structure. They lower energy losses by adding two or more stagnant air layers between the interior of the greenhouse and the glazing. They also reduce infiltration and radiation heat loss. The greatest disadvantages of curtains have been poor mechanical reliability, incomplete sealing after closure, and condensation damage to curtains and plants. 5 Greenhouse Design

5.1 South Facing Wall When solar radiation strikes onto the glazing plate with an incidence angle, the amount of solar energy received by the plate would be dependent on the incidence angle. The incident flux on the plate would be a maximum if the incidence angle equals to 90 deg, that is the solar ray strikes perpendicular to the plate. In order to maximize the incident flux, the collector (south facing wall of greenhouses) should be tilted to an angle rather

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than simply set vertical. However, solar power incident on a surface varies with latitudes of the location of the surface, the date of the year, the time of the day. So if the surface is fixed, angle of incidence would vary from time to time. So the rule of thumb in setting the collector tilt angle is that let the tilt angle equals the angel of latitude of the location if the collector is intended to be operated throughout the year. Otherwise if the application is designed for operation in summer or winter only, the tilt angle should be set as the angle of latitude plus or minus 5 to 10 deg respectively. Usually, summer months are warm enough, so the ability to exploit free heat from sunlight is not as critical during summer months as it is during colder seasons. If the collector surface is facing the true south, it would receive the greatest amount of s solar energy throughout the day. However, in real situations, a site may suggest anothe r orientation due to many reasons. It may be convenient to attach the greenhouse to an existing building, which may not permit a true south face. Obstructions may hide the sun for portions of the day.

Figure 8. Greenhouse attached to an existing house

As the sun would change its position daily and seasonally, if the south facing wall of the greenhouse is divided into two sections with different tilt angles, it would be more effective than a single section. A section with large tilt angle takes advantage of sunlight when the sun is low. A section with small tilt angle takes advantage of sunlight when the sun is high. Ideally, it would be curved to further improve its performance. 5.2 North Facing Wall For most of the available greenhouses, the whole greenhouse is covered by glazing and the structural frame. However, if the north wall is opaque and well insulated, heat losses could be reduced and direct sunlight is still admitted through the other three sides. This

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may be beneficial to the overall performance of the greenhouse. To ensure that sunlight is admitted throughout the year, the north wall was given an angle to coincide with the sun angle at its highest point of the year. Any angle larger than this s would be pointless because the sun never goes any higher. The highest point the sun reaches in the sky is at noon on the day of summer solstice.

Figure 9. North facing wall tilted to an angle with respect to the highest point of the sun

The largest benefit of an opaque, insulated north wall is the reduction in heat loss. A greenhouse with all sides covered by glazing loses much more heat during cold weather. And the construction costs are reduced because glazing is in general more expensive than insulation. An opaque north wall does not adversely affect plant growth either. In fact, a north wall painted reflective white promotes better plant growth than a north wall covered with glazing material, because a reflective white north wall reflects direct sunlight whereas a glazed north wall admits diffuse sunlight only. The overall level of light in the greenhouse is raised by having a reflective north wall instead of a north wall covered by glazing material. 6. Greenhouse Construction Check-off List. In order to conduct an efficient greenhouse, we need to consider several factors which are listed as the below: (i) Engineering

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(ii)

Survey Site Prepare Drawings for Building Permit Prepare Electrical Design Drawings Obtain Building Permit

Site Work Establish and mark building location Site preparation including cut and fill Finish leveling of building pad Concrete for foundation Underground electrical Underground water Underground gas piping Underground storm sewer Greenhouse floor drains Greenhouse concrete slab or sidewalks

(iii)

Greenhouse structure Steel Frame Door(s) Downspouts Glazing roof, sides, ends Glazing extrusions Closure strips

Glazing tape Screws and fasteners Caulking (iv) Heating System Unit Heaters Hanger rods for units Vent pipe (v) Gas piping, valves, regulators

Cooling System HAF fans or fan jet

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(vi)

Fan jet tubing Hanger rods for fan jet Fan jet fresh air intake shutter Exhaust fan framing Shutter framing Evaporative cooling system Framing for cooling system Pump and piping for cooling system Sump tank for cooling system Inter vent Vent motor Inlet shutters

Auxiliary systems Energy curtain CO2 system Fog system Humidifiers Crop support system HID lights Fertilizer injectors Benches Temperature control Controller Contractor panel Vent controllers Weather station Computer link Telephone alarm Water/Irrigation Main shut off valve Backflow preventer Filtration system Hose bids

(vii)

(viii)

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(ix) (x)

Irrigation system Irrigation controller Electrical System New service connection Main panel with breakers Disconnect switches at equipment Duplex receptacles General lighting Equipment wiring Control wiring HPS wiring

Headhouse Structure Covering Potting benches Sink Hot water heater Storage cabinets and shelves Emergency eye wash Emergency shower Walk in cooler Rest Rooms Lunch Room Office Loading dock Sorting and grading equipment Soil and media storage bins Soil and media storage bins Automated potting or seeding equipment

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7. Conclusion Greenhouse is one of the most successful solar energy applications not only in terms of its technical issues but also its economical pay back period. However, since Hong Kong is located near the tropical region and the agricultural industry is not preponderant, so the need for construction and installation of greenhouses is not prevalent. This report has illustrated and discussed with you some of the key components and design issues of a greenhouse. The appearance of greenhouses may look very similar, but the scenario behind may be very different. The glazing of a greenhouse is the prime component in gaining the solar energy, while the glazing is supported on the structural frame. The profile of the glazing may vary from different locations and situations. The main focus is how to fully utilized the incident solar radiation while minimizing the heat losses from greenhouse to the ambient. In order to better control the indoor temperature, vents, heating and cooling systems, ventilations, shadings, curtains, insulations and etc may be installed. Much research and development is being carried out in optimizing the design of greenhouses and its components.

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