ADVANCES IN MASONRY TECHNOLOGY

SELF-CONSOLIDATING GROUT:
Masonry construction is one of the oldest building methods in the world. Several masonry ruins over 5,000 years old still contain their mortar, which is a testament to this building system. Numerous advancements have been developed over the centuries, such as reinforced masonry, which was a monumental advancement, especially in active seismic regions. Today, selfconsolidating grout is on the verge of revolutionizing the masonry industry. Looking back over the years, the ingenuity and experience of the Greeks and Romans have made these innovations possible.

MASONRY OF THE 20TH CENTURY:

The cost of materials at the turn of 20th century made the advent of concrete masonry units, which were first molded manually in 1882, an important advancement in masonry technology. In 1900, Harmon S. Palmer earned a patent for developing a commercial process for producing hollow concrete block. In 1904, a hand-tamp block machine was developed, and in 1909, an automatedtamp and power self-discharging machine was introduced. Another important innovation was the introduction of reinforced masonry. Marc Isambard Brunel is credited with the introduction of reinforced masonry in 1813 when he suggested using steel to reinforce a chimney that was under construction. The practice of reinforcing masonry walls became extremely popular after the 1933 earthquake in Long Beach, Calif. 3 According to the National Information Service for Earthquake Engineering at the University of California, Berkley, the Long Beach earthquake with an estimated magnitude of 6.25 on the Richter scale resulted in catastrophic structural damage to unreinforced masonry structures. However, buildings that were constructed using reinforced masonry technology survived the earthquake with little or no structural damage.

CURRENT TECHNOLOGY:
With all of the strength of today's building materials, the essential nature of grout in reinforced masonry is sometimes lost until you have a firm understanding of the science behind it. Grout is placed in a series of lifts into cavities between wythes and within cores and cells of both brick and block walls. Grout is essential for the transfer of lateral stresses from the block or brick to the steel reinforcement. The difference between conventional grout and concrete is that it has a high water-tocementitious ratio and, as a consequence, possesses a slump between eight and 11 inches (20.3 cm to 27.9 cm). The high slump allows for easier consolidation, especially with areas where steel is congested. The high water-to-cementitious ratio compensates for the suction of moisture by the masonry units. Common problems associated with grouting include voids (see images above) caused by using a grout that is too stiff, bridging at cell offsets, or other obstructions.

Infrared imagery of two different grout placements. The placement on the left contains a large void approximately two-thirds up the wall.

High-lift grouting was developed in San Francisco in the late 1950s. The Masonry Standards Joint Committee recently approved a code change that increases the maximum lift height from five feet to 12 feet eight inches. This change was based on research

conducted at the National Concrete Masonry Association (NCMA). With conventional grout, the lifts still need to be consolidated using external vibration. Self-consolidating grout is the latest innovation in masonry construction. There is currently no definition in the American Concrete Institute or ASTM literature for either self-consolidating concrete (SCC) or self-consolidating grout (SCG). It is generally accepted that SCG must:

have a fluidity that allows self-consolidation without external energy; remain homogeneous during and after placing; and

easily flow through the reinforcement.

These properties are achieved through the use of polycarboxylate high-range water-reducing admixture in conjunction with a viscosity modifying admixture. The flowable nature of the mix allows for placement through congested reinforcement or grout spaces that are partially blocked without segregation. SCG would require little or no consolidation even in high-lift grouting. SCG is not currently addressed in the building code, but, according to the NCMA, SCG will likely have a positive impact on construction speed and economy, as well as the masonry of the future.

POST-TENSION SYSTEM:
Masonry is the oldest man-made building material in the world, invented nearly 10,000 years ago. However, its use in modern load-bearing jobs remains behind that of steel and concrete construction despite masonry's advantages, including simplicity, durability, strength, and ability to incorporate architectural elements into it Why post tension? From a designer's standpoint, post tensioned provides a new structural application to a durable and versatile material characterized by a relatively simple construction technique and competitive cost. Post tensioned provides several economic advantages in the building process over traditional reinforced masonry and other materials. A tremendous benefit of using load-bearing masonry is attributed to its capability of incorporating architectural elements, such as partitions and non-load-bearing walls, into structural design without adding significant material or cost to the structure. This versatile feature eliminates the coupled need in modern construction of a load-bearing frame and architectural accessories, thus offering structural advantage and cost effectiveness. Full grouting is not necessary for post tensioned, which results in material and labor cost savings, when compared to conventional reinforced masonry. Selective grouting of bond beams and grout plugs achieves much greater economy and efficiency than full grouting. Also, when compared with conventional masonry construction, the number and spacing of bars is minimized. Because of these aspects of post tensioned, there is the potential for a shorter construction schedule, depending upon the manner in which the post-tensioning operation is scheduled relative to other construction tasks. Other economic advantages of a post-tensioned system include lowering building weight if grouting is eliminated or minimized. Also, the post-tensioning system can be utilized as temporary wall bracing, and minimal interruption of building functions occurs when used for repairing existing

structures. Another positive feature of post-tensioned masonry is minimization of maintenance costs because of its high durability. Additionally, good insulating properties can reduce energy costs, and a well-designed and built post-tensioned masonry wall has a high level of fire resistance The building sector is on the front lines of the sustainability movement meaning that innovations within the industry stand to make a substantial impact on climate change and the environment. This month, were taking a look at developments in building materials that promise to make green building a smarter, more efficient and effective vehicle for a shift in the global paradigm of sustainability. Recent advances in masonry design have developed a post-tensioning technique for this versatile building material. Post-tensioned masonry offers a new structural application characterized by a relatively simple construction technique and competitive cost that can move masonry to the forefront of engineering practice. Elements of post tensioning The construction of a prestressed masonry system initiates with an anchorage embedded within a concrete element at the base of the wall. Galvanized steel, or protectively wrapped threaded rod segments, are attached to the anchorage and connected with threaded sleeves. As the wall is constructed, the masonry units are placed around the rod until the desired height is achieved. The steel is tensioned after the masonry has cured an appropriate amount of time. Other systems utilize a hollow galvanized duct in place of the threaded rod, with the construction process the same. After a header beam is attached to the top of the wall, a steel tendon is guided into the sleeve until securely fastened in the anchorage at the base of the wall. The tendon is then tensioned via a torque wrench, impact wrench, or hydraulic jack. The cavity can be grouted or ungrouted, but the tendon remains unbonded within the duct. There are two common construction methods for placing the tendons in a pre-stressed masonry system: restrained or unrestrained. These two methods, in turn, affect the manner in which the tendons interact with the surrounding masonry. In the restrained condition, the transverse motion between the tendon and surrounding masonry is prevented over the full height of the wall. The most obvious technique for achieving the restrained condition is grouting, but even though there are structural benefits to using a fully grouted cavity, it is anticipated that the most successful pre-stressed masonry systems will be ungrouted because of the ease of construction and overall economy. Besides full grouting along the length, a tendon also can be restrained intermittently along its height by maintaining the location of the tendon relative to the masonry by using grout plugs or mechanical devices. It should be noted that the only acceptable restraint device currently recognized by the Masonry Standards Joint Committee (MSJC) code provisions is the grout plug. In the case of unrestrained tendons, nothing is placed between the top and bottom anchorage location, so the tendon can move freely within the masonry cavity.

DEVELOPMENTS IN CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS:

DEVELOPMENTS IN CONCRETE

We now have concrete that is not sensitive to water, temperature, moisture and, in a few years we may even be able to build on the moon Concrete is an essential material used in the construction of different types of structures. It has played a significant role in almost all aspects of human civilization. Residential buildings, skyscrapers, large office and commercial complexes, are all built using one type of concrete or the other. This hardy material is extensively used in making bridges, highways, stadiums, irrigation works, airport tarmacs, pavements, and countless prefabricated products. Need for developing new range of concrete Although concrete is a tough material yet it has its own set of weaknesses. Over a period of time concrete gets damaged by water and moisture. Water eats into the lime component of the concrete. This causes microscopic channels to develop that eventually widen with more contact with moisture and crack concrete. Temperature variations, stress, and vibrations cause it to fracture. Many a times the assortment of materials that goes into the making of concrete does not produce the required resilience. All these factors have forced researchers all over the world to improve the quality, strength, and durability of concrete. The main focus area of research is on the development of a new generation of concrete that is better equipped to withstand natural elements, is resistant to cracking, and is long-lasting. Self healing concrete This next-generation concrete does not break off like conventional concrete does. However, it usually bends due to overuse or under stressful conditions and at the most develops minute fissures. Nevertheless, these cracks are easily taken care of by the reaction that takes place between the exposed material and natural elements. Calcium carbonate, a strong substance, is automatically created when the open surfaces of these tiny crevices come in contact with rainwater and with carbon dioxide present in the air. Once it is created, calcium carbonate fills and effectively seals of the cracked areas of the concrete making it as sturdy as before. The elasticity of this matter is drawing the attention of engineers who want to use it as a viable replacement for expansion joints required to stabilise bridges. The applications of this new type of concrete are immense and it is bound to leave its mark on the construction industry across the globe. Quality control with infrared thermography Thermal imaging technology can easily determine the quality of freshly prepared concrete at construction sites. It is better to detect inconsistencies in the making of concrete than to use substandard matter and wait for disasters to happen. Thermographs help to monitor the critical process of concrete curing of various prefabricated concrete products under controlled conditions. Further, this technology is employed to establish the effect of temperature on freshly poured concrete at a construction site.

High-performance fibre reinforced varieties of concrete There is a never ending demand for creating a construction material that is highly impervious to water, resists cracks, and is robust and long-lasting. These qualities can be achieved by infusing concrete with a host of microscopic fibres. The hardiness and durability of concrete is enhanced with the use of fibres made out of steel, glass, cellulose, nylon, polypropylene and so on. These fibres reduce the occurrence of shrinking and cracking in concrete. Further, fibres improve the strength and water-resistant capabilities of concrete exponentially thereby extending and ensuring its longevity. An Assortment of additives Constantly new matter is being tried for making new-generation concrete. One such variety is developed by mixing cement with slag obtained from blast furnaces. Another type makes use of fly ash, an industrial by-product. Increased water-resistance is possible in concrete by making use of raw material traditionally used for manufacturing porcelain articles. Scientists working on nano particles are also striving hard to increase the toughness of concrete matter and its additives. In this regard, researchers have already achieved success by improving the behaviour of nano particles found in cement by changing their structure. This adds solidity to both cement and concrete. One for the moon Mankind is looking at extraterrestrial bodies not only for research but also as a potential future home. In this context, the moon is the first and the foremost choice for setting up human colonies. Here also the role of concrete is crucial. Study is underway to develop a construction material that will facilitate use of moon dust for building structures on the lunar surface.

GLASCRETE: PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE WITH WASTE GLASS AS AGGREGATES

There are some advantages for using mixed color glass aggregate in concrete, especially for some architectural applications. However, being a reactive material, when glass aggregatesa r e a d d e d i n t o p o r t l a n d c e m e n t c o n c r e t e , t h e y i n e v i t a b l y r e s u l t i n a l o n g - t e r m d u r a b i l i t y problem, called alkali-silica reaction (ASR). The product of ASR is called ASR gel, whichswells with the absorption of moisture. Sometimes the generated pressure due to ASR gel is sufficient to induce the development and propagation of fractures in concrete. Therefore, themajor problem that we need to solve for utilization of glass aggregate in portland cement c o n c r e t e i s h o w t o r e d u c e t h e l o n g - t e r m d a m a g e o f c o n c r e t e d u e t o A S R e x p a n s i o n . There are several approaches that can effectively control the expansion of ASR due toglass aggregate, in addition to the conventional approaches used to minimize ASR expansiono f r e g u l a r p o r t l a n d c e m e n t c o n c r e t e , s u c h a s u s i n g s i l i c a f u m e a n d v a r i o u s a d d i t i v e s . Firstly, the particle size of glass aggregate is found to have a major influence on ASR e x p a n s i o n . S i n c e t h e A S R reaction is clearly a surface -area dependent phenomenon, onewould expect the ASR associated expansion to increase monotonically with a g g r e g a t e fineness. However, there exists a size of the aggregate at which the maximum expansionoccurs. This is called "pessimum" size.Types of glass also have a significant effect on the ASR expansion. Various types of glass aggregate were tested including soda-lime glass (used in most beverage containers),Pyrex glass, and fused

silica. The maximum expansions of mortar bars made with differentglass aggregate types differ by almost one order of magnitude. Window glass, plate glass, andwindshield glass were found to cause negligible ASR expansion in the ASTM C1260 test.Colors of glass are also important for ASR expansion. Clear glass (the most commonkind in waste glass) was found to be most reactive, followed by amber (brown) glass. Green glass did not cause any expansion. Depending on the size of glass particle, green glass of fine p a r t i c l e s c a n r e d u c e t h e e x p a n s i o n . T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t f i n e l y g r o u n d g r e e n g l a s s h a s t h e potential for an inexpensive ASR suppressant. The green color comes from added Cr2O3 inthe glass. However, when chromium oxide is added directly into the concrete mix, the ASR expansion of the concrete is not reduced. So, the ASR suppressing mechanisms of Cr2O3 ingreen glass needs to be further studies.

PHASE CHANGE MATERIALS

Phase change materials (or PCMs) are set to radically cut heating and energy bills with their revolutionary properties that enable them to become liquid in warm temperatures, and then solidify as temperatures begin to drop absorbing and releasing heat respectively to keep indoor environments comfortable, all for a fraction of the energy costs of current systems. Because the energy required to change states in materials is relatively high, PCMs are an ideal candidate for thermal insulation, keeping rooms cool on hot days by storing the suns energy in molecular bonds as the material melts, and then releasing this energy to keep rooms warm after sunset when the PCM reverts to solid form. Ice, a primitive but widely used PCM, operates under the same principles, but scientists have been developing materials which change phases at more useful temperatures than water.

A brand new building at the University of Washington, for example, incorporates bioPCM gel into the facilitys walls. Derived from vegetable oils, the gel is a mere 1.25 centimeters thick, but has the same insulating properties as more than 25 centimeters of concrete. Experts say the industry, which currently hovers near zero, could be worth $130 million in just a few years.

BUILDING WITH TRASH

Refuse is becoming a growing problem in many parts of the world, and the silver bullet of construction materials would be a low-cost, environment-helping method of transforming discarded plastics and other waste into durable building products.

Solidia Technologies, a New Jersey based company, uses a process called low-temperature solidification to combine minerals, carbon dioxide and waste materials to form building materials that are more durable than concrete. These manufactured stones and plastics are some of the greenest building options around while most materials release green-house emissions in the production process, Solidias materials actually remove carbon in two ways one, by sequestering carbon dioxide used in the manufacturing process, and two by removing waste material from landfills that would otherwise return carbon and other compounds to the atmosphere. So far, materials for floors, walls, countertops, and facades can be created in just a few hours, and customized for particular projects making Solidia material a strong candidate for replacing concrete altogether. Its low temperature manufacturing also allows other interesting possibilities, such as incorporating sensors or photo-voltaic elements into material for roads, infrastructure, and buildings. Architect Rick Crook, who designed New Yorks first LEED Platinum building, recently told Wall Street Daily, As architects designing for a sustainable future, we are seeking new products that are not just qualitatively better, but radically address our carbon footprint. I believe Solidia Technologies has developed such a material.

CARBON-NEGATIVE CONCRETE
Concrete is the most widely-used construction material in the world, but the cheap production costs mask a heavy environmental toll cement manufacturing accounts for nearly five percent of all manmade carbon dioxide emissions, with one ton of Portland cement releasing nearly 800 kilograms of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere because of the heavy carbon pockets in limestone and the high heating temperatures needed to drive the chemical reactions in the manufacturing process.

Novacem, a London-based startup, is pushing an innovative magnesium oxide-based cement alternative that is actually carbon-negative, pulling more carbon out of the air in its production process than it releases. With a lower reaction temperature and carbon dioxide recycling processes, one ton of Novacem cement absorbs a net total of 100 kilograms of carbon dioxide from the air.

With comparable performance and falling manufacturing costs, Novacem hopes to transform one of the most polluting aspects of the building sector into a carbon sequestering industry over the next few decades to help combat rising climate change.

STAY-IN-PLACE INSULATING CONCRETE FORMS (ICF).

Concrete is plentiful and often affordable but the old way to do a concrete wall in homes typically offers low insulating qualities and can have long term sweating and mold issues. Most contractors use furring strips on the interior of concrete walls to increase the insulation properties, to make the wall look more attractive, and to create a chase for the homes wiring. Stay-In-Place Insulating Concrete Forms (ICF) offer new options for concrete foundations and walls. Although these walls look like an Igloo cooler during construction, they are concretes best new friend.Insulating Concrete Forms are stack-able blocks, panels, or planks made from polystyrene. They are light weight and easy to install because they are dry stacked without mortar in the joints. The forms are left in place and filled with concrete. The interior and exterior can be finished as you desired. This makes for an incredibly strong and well insulated wall. They can be used for foundations and walls. In fact, the entire house frame can now be built with an ICF system. The Blocks are usually held together with rebar and plastic or metal ties. Many ICF products can even be used for retaining walls, swimming pools and you can even make curved

walls with some of them. Some things to consider when building with Insulating Concrete Forms:

Concrete Pumper trucks are needed for most ICF building projetcs. You have to have some method of getting the concrete up to send down the middle of the blocks. Decide how you would like to attach you floor joist, trusses and rafters. Have your placement of windows and doors figured out in advance. Building plans are a lovely thing. Placement of water lines and electrical romex needs to be considered. Most ICF systems have a method to chase these runs with the block. The insulating factor of ICF can be has high as an R40. That is great but this leads to a new concern, and that is one of air movement. You will need to install an adequate HVAC air exchanger to give your house the needed fresh air. And dont forget to check local building codes to see what is required and what they will allow you to do. Or you could live in a rural area like I do with no building codes. :-)

Shipping and storage to your building site. Although these forms are very light they are bulky and can become wind damaged prior to instillation. Some manufactures have developed a collapsible system to make transporting and hauling easier and more affordable.After the concrete is poured the interiors can be humid for a few weeks as the concrete cures. Initial building costs is often higher than conventional methods but energy savings offsets construction costs over time.

INNOVATIONS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION:

THERMA-DECK ROOFS :
Could an aluminum and polystyrene sandwich help make your home more energy efficient? That is claim made by Billy Ellis Roofing LLC with their popular green roof decking product known as ThermaDeck. Their claim has a lot of backing thanks to laboratory testing by Oak Ridge National Laboratory and pages of happy customer testimonials with lower heating and cooling bills. Lets look a little closer at how ThermaDeck works. Have you ever been in your attic in the middle of the Summer? If so, I am willing to bet that you did not stay long. Temps in the attic on the hottest days can get near 200 degrees. This cooks your shingles and can cost you a fortune as your air conditioner tries to keep-up. Heat travels into your attic through Radiation, Convection, and Conduction. The ThermaDeck has a aluminum skin that reflects the radiant heat. The Polystyrene adds an insulation value to help prevent heat from being built-up. Then convection currents are used to vent the heat AWAY from your attic space. The conventional decking is installed over the ThermaDeck and a cavity allows the air to vent the attic. Great idea! This product offers a radiant barrier, extra Insulation, and proper ventilation. This design does much more than a typical vented roof because they are not allowing the heat to build-up in the attic. In fact, the hotter the outdoor temps, the greater the flow of hot air evacuated by the ThermaDeck venting process.

RESILIENT FLOORING:
Bathrooms and other high humidity rooms are challenging when it comes to flooring. We want something that is pretty, waterproof and warm to the toes. Ceramic tile is relatively inexpensive but boy is it cold. Ceramic flooring can also be damaged and shatter when something hard is dropped on it. Ceramic tile is also time consuming and messy to install. Some people like carpet in their bathrooms but I dont recommend this at all because it is a mold factory! But there is something better available now. This is often called resilient flooring and it is a synthetic rubber feel to it. One of the more popular brands is from Trafficmaster and it is called Allure. This flooring will allow you to add the look of hardwood flooring to your bathroom, kitchen, basement or any high humidity room (or any other room for that matter). This flloring is inexpensive, easy to install and its waterproof. The Uniclic locking system that keeps floors safe and secure and it can even be installed over your existing flooring

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE: COMING TO A HOME NEAR YOU

'Smart' homes are the latest technological advancement in energy efficiency and improving our lives

In todays crazy computerized world of smart innovations, one might wonder if future technology is aimed at eradicating humankind and replacing us with our robotic counterparts. From energy efficient electric cars, to phones with built in personal assistants, to digitally programmed systems that secure our homes, adjust our lighting and heating, and even make our coffee for us in the mornings, our way of life has greatly improved through advancements in technology. But are all of these incredible inventions promoting human apathy or do they genuinely improve our quality of life? Diane Cook, head of the CASAS Smart Home Project, seems to think artificial intelligence and smart environments will continue to revolutionize our daily lives and dramatically shape the technological landscape in the future. Cook is a Hui-Rogers Chair Professor in the School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at Washington State University and is making some serious headway in the research and advancements of artificial intelligence, machine learning and smart environments. Her focus is currently on the development of smart homes. Smart homes are equipped with small sensors that are each connected to an intelligent central computer program that can actually detect your daily routine and conform to it. It can do anything from turning lights on and off as you enter and exit rooms, set your security alarm for you as you leave for the day, or beguile you with dimmed lighting and enchanting music as you enter your home after an enduring day at the office. But one cant ignore what this could also mean for an aging population. For segments of the population, this technology would allow them to stay at home for a couple of years longer than they could otherwise by providing continuous updated information to loved ones and caregivers about the wellbeing of their loved ones, Cook said. These elaborate computer systems have the potential to assist people with dementia by sending an alert to remind them to take their medications, feed their pets, or sending a text message to a loved one or caregiver if a mental lapse has occurred. Sound a little reminiscent of Stanley Kubricks masterpiece, 2001: A Space Odyssey? Not to worry, for the time being it sounds like these systems are infinitely more cooperative than the menacing Hal 9000. With the intent of making lives easier, prolonging independence, and making homes more energy efficient, smart homes excite smart living.

ULTRA-THIN, ELASTIC SOLAR CELLS WIDEN BUILDING POTENTIAL

Thinner than spider silk, new solar cells developed by international scientists could transform green building A team of Australian and Japanese researchers have unveiled an innovative organic solar cell design that is ten times smaller than the thinnest cells on the market.By attaching the solar cells to elastomers, the solar cells can be made flexible and stretchable, opening a wide range of applications in clothing, shrinking electronics, and even the construction industry.Typical solar energy systems utilize glass-based cells that are rigid, easily damaged, and fairly inefficient in terms of required space and energy production. With elastic, razor-thin solar cells able to create bendable and highly efficient solar power-producing film could be incorporated into building design to reduce stresses on urban infrastructure and lower carbon emissions. The lightness and flexibility of these new cells also make them ideal for incorporation directly into electronics and other utilities, including LED lighting.

ADVANCED EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN TECHNIQUES

INTRODUCTION
The conventional approach to earthquake resistant design of buildings depends upon providing the building with strength, stiffness and inelastic deformation capacity which are great enough to withstand a given level of earthquakegenerated force. This is generally accomplished through the selection of an appropriate structural configuration and the careful detailing of structural members, such as beams and columns, and the connections between them.

(fig. 1) In contrast, we can say that the basic approach underlying more advanced techniques for earthquake resistance is not to strengthen the building, but to reduce the earthquakegenerated forces acting upon it. Among the most important advanced techniques of earthquake resistant design and construction are base isolation and energy dissipation devices.

BASE ISOLATION
It is easiest to see this principle at work by referring directly to the most widely used of these advanced techniques, which is known as base isolation. A base isolated structure is supported by a series of bearing pads which are placed between the building and the building's foundation.(See Figure 1) A variety of different types of base isolation bearing pads have now been developed. For our example, we'll discuss leadrubber bearings. These are among the frequentlyused types of base isolation bearings. (See Figure 2) A leadrubber bearing is made from layers of rubber sandwiched together with layers of steel. In the middle of the bearing is a solid lead "plug." On top and bottom, the bearing is fitted with steel plates which are used to attach the bearing to the building and foundation. The bearing is very stiff and strong in the vertical direction, but flexible in the horizontal direction.

EARTHQUAKE GENERATED FORCES

To get a basic idea of how base isolation works, first examine Figure 3. This shows an earthquake acting on both a base isolated building and a conventional, fixedbase, building. As a result of an earthquake, the ground beneath each building begins to move. In Figure 3, it is shown moving to the left.

(fig. 2) Each building responds with movement which tends toward the right. We say that the building undergoes displacement towards the right. The building's displacement in the direction opposite the ground motion is actually due to inertia. The inertial forces acting on a building are the most important of all those generated during an earthquake. It is important to know that the inertial forces which the building undergoes are proportional to the building's acceleration during ground motion. It is also important to realize that buildings don't actually shift in only one direction. Because of the complex nature of earthquake ground motion, the building actually tends to vibrate back and forth in varying directions. So, Figure 3 is really a kind of "snapshot" of the building at only one particular point of its earthquake response.

(fig. 3) In addition to displacing toward the right, the unisolated building is also shown to be changing its shape from a rectangle to a parallelogram. We say that the building is deforming. The primary cause of earthquake damage to buildings is the deformation which the building undergoes as a result of the inertial forces acting upon it. The different types of damage which buildings can suffer are quite varied and depend upon a large number of complicated factors. But to take one simple example, one can easily imagine what happens to two pieces of wood joined at a right angle by a few nails, when the very heavy building containing them suddenly starts to move very quickly the nails pull out and the connection fails.

RESPONSE OF BASE ISOLATED BUILDING

By contrast, even though it too is displacing, the baseisolated building retains its original, rectangular shape. It is the leadrubber bearings supporting the building that are deformed. The baseisolated building itself escapes the deformation and damagewhich implies that the inertial forces acting on the baseisolated building have been reduced. Experiments and observations of baseisolated buildings in earthquakes have been shown to reduce building accelerations to as little as 1/4 of the acceleration of comparable fixedbase buildings, which each building undergoes as a percentage of gravity. As we noted above, inertial forces increase, and decrease, proportionally as acceleration increases or decreases. Acceleration is decreased because the base isolation system lengthens a building's period of vibration, the time it takes for the building to rock back and forth and then back again. And in general, structures with longer periods of vibration tend to reduce acceleration, while those with shorter periods tend to increase or amplify acceleration. Finally, since they are highly elastic, the rubber isolation bearings don't suffer any damage. But what about that lead plug in the middle of our example bearing? It experiences the same deformation as the rubber. However, it also generates heat as it does so. In other words, the lead plug reduces, or dissipates, the energy of motioni.e., kinetic energyby converting that energy into heat. And by reducing the energy entering the building, it helps to slow and eventually stop the building's vibrations sooner than would otherwise be the case in other words, it damps the building's vibrations. (Damping is the fundamental property of all vibrating bodies which tends to absorb the body's energy of motion, and thus reduce the amplitude of vibrations until the body's motion eventually ceases.)

SPHERICAL SLIDING ISOLATION SYSTEMS

As we said earlier, leadrubber bearings are just one of a number of different types of base isolation bearings which have now been developed. Spherical Sliding Isolation Systems are another type of base isolation. The building is supported by bearing pads that have a curved surface and low friction.

(fig. 4) During an earthquake, the building is free to slide on the bearings. Since the bearings have a curved surface, the building slides both horizontally and vertically (See Figure 4.) The force

needed to move the building upwards limits the horizontal or lateral forces which would otherwise cause building deformations. Also, by adjusting the radius of the bearing's curved surface, this property can be used to design bearings that also lengthen the building's period of vibration. For more information read this article titled Protective Systems for Buildings: Application of Spherical Sliding Isolation Systems as it describes one particular type of spherical sliding isolation system, and its successful use in making some structures more earthquake resistant.

ENERGY DISSIPATION DEVICES

The second of the major new techniques for improving the earthquake resistance of buildings also relies upon damping and energy dissipation, but it greatly extends the damping and energy dissipation provided by leadrubber bearings. As we've said, a certain amount of vibration energy is transferred to the building by earthquake ground motion. Buildings themselves do possess an inherent ability to dissipate, or damp, this energy. However, the capacity of buildings to dissipate energy before they begin to suffer deformation and damage is quite limited. The building will dissipate energy either by undergoing large scale movement or sustaining increased internal strains in elements such as the building's columns and beams. Both of these eventually result in varying degrees of damage. So, by equipping a building with additional devices which have high damping capacity, we can greatly decrease the seismic energy entering the building, and thus decrease building damage. Accordingly, a wide range of energy dissipation devices have been developed and are now being installed in real buildings. Energy dissipation devices are also often called damping devices. The large number of damping devices that have been developed can be grouped into three broad categories:

Friction Dampers these utilize frictional forces to dissipate energy Metallic Dampers utilize the deformation of metal elements within the damper Viscoelastic Dampers utilize the controlled shearing of solids Viscous Dampers utilized the forced movement (orificing) of fluids within the damper

FLUID VISCOUS DAMPERS

Once again, to try to illustrate some of the general principles of damping devices, we'll look more closely at one particular type of damping device, the Fluid Viscous Damper, which is one variety of viscous damper that has been widely utilized and has proven to be very effective in a wide range of applications. The article, titled Application of Fluid Viscous Dampers to Earthquake Resistant Design, describes the basic characteristics of fluid viscous dampers, the process of developing and testing them, and the installation of fluid viscous dampers in an actual building to make it more earthquake resistant.

DAMPING DEVICES AND BRACING SYSTEMS

(fig. 5) Damping devices are usually installed as part of bracing systems. Figure 5 shows one type of damperbrace arrangement, with one end attached to a column and one end attached to a floor beam. Primarily, this arrangement provides the column with additional support. Most earthquake ground motion is in a horizontal direction; so, it is a building's columns which normally undergo the most displacement relative to the motion of the ground. Figure 5 also shows the damping device installed as part of the bracing system and gives some idea of its a