FS =
f m
Factor of safety due to the shear strength of soils governed by the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion ESA: FS = TSA: FS =
n tan N tan = Tm m su m
Factor of safety for the ESA in the case of a slope without seepage and groundwater below the slip plane
FS = N j tan Tj = W j cos s tan tan = W j sin s tan s
Maximum slope angle of a coarse-grained soil at limit equilibrium, FS = 1 s = Normal force on the slip plane when seepage is parallel to the slope
N j = W j cos s = b j z j cos s
Factor of safety for the ESA in the case of groundwater within the sliding mass and seepage parallel to the slope
FS = N j tan Tj = b j z j cos s tan sat b j z j sin s = tan sat tan s
tan s =
tan sat
W j sin s lj W j sin s cos s bj b j z j bj
FS =
s =
Depth equation obtained from solving the slope angle equation for z
z=
2s u sin (2 s )
METHOD OF SLICES
Normal effective force along the slip surface from the principle of effective stress
N j = N j u j l j Equilibrium equation obtained from combining the above two equations
N j cos j = W j + X j X j+1 T j sin j u j l j cos j
W x T R = 0
j j j
T =
j
Wj x j R
= W j sin j
(Tf ) j f = Tj m
N j tan() j Tj
Constant, m j
mj = cos j +
1 tan () j sin j FS
Simplified equation for the normal effective force along the slip surface
N j = {W j (1 ru ) + (X j X j+1 )}m j
Combination of the summation of mobilized shear forces equation and factor of safety equation for an ESA
N j tan() j FS
= W j sin j
{W (1 r ) + (X X W sin
j u j j
j+1 j
)} tan() j m j
W (1 r )} tan() m W sin
j u j j j
W tan() m W sin
j j j j
Combination of the summation of mobilized shear forces equation and the mobilized shear force on the slip surface for a TSA FS =
(s ) l W sin
u j j j
FS =
(s )
u
bj
j
W sin
j
cos j
j
Janbus Method Factor of safety, defined with respect to equilibrium of horizontal forces on a noncircular slip surface FS =
cos j
tan j
FS = f o
(s ) b {W + (X X )}tan
j j j+1
(s ) b W tan
u j j j
W (1 r
j
) tan j (m j )
1 2 2 w z cr z s + z cr 2 3 Wj sin j + R
(s
TSA: FS =
)j
bj cos j
1 2 2 w z cr z s + z cr 2 3 Wj sin j + R
(s ) (z )
u
j j
Bishop-Morgenstern Method Factor of safety for an ESA with stability coefficients that depend on the friction angle and the geometry of the slope FS = m - nru
CHAPTER 2 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS AND SOIL INVESTIGATIONS PHASE RELATIONSHIPS Total volume of the soil
V =Vs +Vw +Va =Vs +Vv
Void ratio e= Vv Vs
V =1+e Vs
Specific volume
V =
Porosity
n=
Vv V
e 1+ e
Specific gravity
Gs =
Ws Vs w
V w wG s or Se = wG = s e Vv
Degree of saturation
S =
W G s + Se = w V 1+ e
Effective or buoyant unit weight G -1 = sat - w = s w 1+ e Relative density Dr = emax - e emax - emin
DETERMINATION OF PARTICLE SIZE OF SOILS Particle Size of Coarse-Grained Soils Percent retained
% retained on i th sieve =
Percent finer
Wi 100 W
D=
18 z (G s - 1) w t D
(D10 D 60)
Liquidity index
IL =
(w - w PL) Ip
Activity that describes the importance of the clay fractions on the plasticity index
A=
DETERMINATION OF THE LIQUID, PLASTIC, AND SHRINKAGE LIMITS Fall Cone Method to Determine Liquid and Plastic Limits
w PL = w LL 2 w = w LL - 4.2w log10 (M 2 / M1)
Shrinkage Limit
w SL = (
m1 m 2 V1 V2 w ) x 100 m2 m2 g
SOIL CLASSIFICATION SCHEMES Line called A-line that delineates the boundaries between clays and silts and organic soils
ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS Head Total head according to Bernoullis principle
H = hz + hp +
v2 2g
vj = kj
dH dx j
H = k xi l
Darcys Law
vx = k x
Empirical relationships for K Taylor proposed a relationship linking k with void ratios
H = h 1 + h 2 + .. h n
Use of Darcys law and knowing that the velocity in each layer is the same
k z ( eq )
h h 2 h n H = k z1 1 = k z 2 = .. = k zn H h1 h2 hn
H h1 h h + 2 + .. + n k z1 k z 2 k zn
k z ( eq ) =
DETERMINATION OF THE COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY Constant Head Test Coefficient of permeability in the vertical direction
k= q QL = Ai tAh
The experimental value of the coefficient of permeability is corrected to a baseline temperature of 20 o k 200C = k T 0C T 0C 200C = k T 0C R T
k=
h aL ln( 1 ) A( t 2 t 1 ) h 2
Gs Gs d = w = wG s 1+ e 1+ S
CHAPTER 3 STRESSES, STRAINS AND ELASTIC DEFORMATIONS OF SOILS STRESSES AND STRAINS Normal stresses of a cube subjected to forces normal to three adjacent sides
z =
Py P Pz , x = x , y = xy yz xz y x z , x = , y = y x z
IDEALIZED STRESS-STRAIN RESPONSE AND YIELDING Material responses to normal loading and unloading Change in vertical stress
z = P A z zo r ro
Poissons ratio
r z
HOOKES LAW General State of Stress Hookes Law for a general state of stress
0 0 0 x x 1 1 0 0 0 y y z 1 1 0 0 0 z = 0 0 2(1 + ) 0 0 xy xy E 0 yz 0 0 0 0 2(1 + ) 0 yz zx 0 0 0 0 2(1 + ) zx 0 Elastic stress-strain constitutive equation from Hookes Law
zx =
2(1 + ) zx = zx E G
Principal Stresses Reduced Hookes Law if stresses applied are principal stresses
1 1 1 E 1 2 2 = (1 + )(1 2 ) 1 3 3
Displacements from Strains and Forces from Stresses Vertical displacement
z = z dz
Axial force
Pz = z dA
2 = (1 + 3 ) Matrix form
1 1 + 1 1 = E 1 3 3
Inverse matrix form
1 1 1 E = 1 3 3 (1 + )(1 2 )
Axisymmetric Conditions Hookes Law for axisymmetric conditions
1 = 3 = 1 [1 2 3 ] E 1 [(1 ) 3 1 ] E
Matrix form
1 1 1 2 1 = 3 E 1 3
Inverse matrix form
1 1 2 1 E = 1 3 3 (1 + )(1 2 )
1 z E z = r zr Ez
2 rz E r z (1 rr ) r Er
Mohrs Circle for Stress States Relationship between the principal stresses and the stress components
+ x x 2 1 = z + z + zx 2 2
+ x x 2 3 = z z + zx 2 2
Angle between the major principal stress plane and the horizontal plane
2
tan =
zx 1 x
=
=
1 + 3 1 3 + cos 2 2 2
1 3 sin 2 2 z + x z x + cos 2 + zx sin 2 2 2 z x sin 2 2
= zx cos 2
max =
1 3 2
+ x x zx 1 = z + z + 2 2 2
Minor principal strain
+ x x zx 3 = z z + 2 2 2
Maximum simple shear strain max = 1 3
= + u
Terzaghis principle of effective stress
= u
Effective stress for unsaturated soils = u a + (u a u w ) Effective Stresses Due to Geostatic Stress Fields Total vertical stress
= sat z
Effective stress = u = sat z w z = ( sat w )z = z Effects of Capillary Sum of forces vertically in the capillary simulation of soils d 2 h c w dT cos = 0 4 Height at which water will rise in the capillary tube
hc = 4T cos d w
1 d
js =
H w = i w L
Resultant vertical effective stress if seepage occurs downward z = z + iz w = z + js z Resultant vertical effective stress if seepage occurs upward z = z iz w = z js z
Ko =
3 1
= (1 sin cs ) ( OCR )
Point Load Increases in stresses on a soil element located at point A due to a point load z = 3Q r 2 2 2 z 1 + z
5 2
r =
Q 3r 2 z 1 2 2 5/ 2 2 r + z 2 r2 + z2 + z r2 + z2
1/ 2
Q (1 2 ) 2 z 2 3 / 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 / 2 2 r + z + z(r + z ) (r + z )
Influence factor 3 1 I = 2 2 1+ r z 2
The vertical displacement is 1 Q (1 + ) 2(1 ) + z = 1 2 2 2 r r 1+ 2Ez 1 + z z and the radial displacement is:
Q (1 + ) 2Ez 1 + r z
2
(3.59)
r =
( )
r z 1+ r z
( ) (1 2 )( r z ) ( ) } {1 + (r z ) } + 1
2 2 1 2
(3.60)
z =
2Q z3 x2 + z2
2Q x 2 z x = x2 + z2
zx =
2Q xz 2 x2 + z2
Line Load Near a Buried Earth Retaining Structure Increase in lateral stress due to a line load x = 4Q a 2b H o ( a 2 + b 2 )2
z = x = zx =
z ( x, 0) (0, 0) =
x =
zx =
qs
x z R2 1 ln 1 + sin 2 2 B B R2 2
qs z 1 + cos 2 2 2 B
Increase in stresses due to an area transmitting a uniform stress near a retaining wall
x =
2q s ( sincos 2 ) 2q s [H( 2 1 )]
Increase in lateral force due to an area transmitting a uniform stress near a retaining wall
Px =
Location of lateral force due to an area transmitting a uniform stress near a retaining wall H 2 ( 2 1 ) + (R Q) 57.3Bh z= 2H( 2 1 ) Uniformly Loaded Circular Area Increases of vertical and radial stresses under the center of a circular area of radius, ro
3/ 2 1 z = q s 1 = qs Ic 1 + (ro / z )2
r = =
3/ 2
Influence factor
3/ 2 1 Ic = 1 1 + (ro / z )2
The relative vertical displacement between the center of the strip load (0, 0) and a point at the surface (x, 0) is
z ( x, 0) (0, 0) =
x2 B2 qs (1 2 ) B 2 x2 B ln B ln x + ln B x + x 2 2 2 B 2 2 E 2
Vertical elastic settlement at the surface due to a circular flexible loaded area below center of loaded area: below edge: z = z = q s D(1 2 ) E 2 q s D(1 2 ) E
Uniformly Loaded Rectangular Area Increases in stresses below the corner of a rectangular area of width B and length L
z = q s 1 LB LBz 1 1 2 + 2 + tan 2 zR 3 R 3 R 1 R 2
x = y = zx
qs B z2B = 2 2 R 2 R 1 R 3
where R 1 = L2 + z 2 z = q s I z x = q s I x
y = q s I y
, R 2 = B2 + z 2
and R 3 = (L2 + B 2 + z 2 ) 2
1
Iz =
where m =
Vertical elastic settlement at the ground surface under a rectangular flexible surface load q s B(1 2 ) Is z = E Settlement influence factor with s = at the center of a rectangle: I s =
L B
2 1 + 1 + s 2 2 ln s + 1 + s + s ln s
Simplified form of the settlement influence factor with s 1 at the center of a rectangle: I s 0.62 ln( s ) + 1.12 at the corner of a rectangle: I s 0.31ln( s ) + 0.56 Approximate Method for Rectangular Loads Vertical stress increase under the center of the load
z = q s BL (B + z)(L + z)
Mean stress p= 1 + 2 + 3 x + y + z = 3 3 1
[( 2
2 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 3 1 )
2 2
2 1/ 2
Volumetric Strain
p = 1 + 2 + 3 = x + y + z
1/ 2
Axisymmetric Condition, 2 = or 2 = 3 ; 2 = 3 3
p =
1 + 2 + 2 3 3 , and p = 1 3 3
p = p u
q = 1 3 ; q = 1 = (1 u ) ( 3 u ) = 1 3 3
p = 1 + 2 3
q =
2 (1 3 ) 3
Plane Strain, 2 = 0
p =
1 + 2 + + 2 + 3 3 , and p = 1 3 3
p = p u
q' = q = or 1
[( ) 2
1 2 2
+ (2 ) + ( 1 ) 3 3
2 2 2 1/ 2
2 1/ 2
[( 2
(
3 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 3 1 )
p = 1 + 3
q =
2 2 2 1 + 3 1 3 3
1/ 2
Hookes Law Using Stress and Strain Invariants Relationship between stress and strain invariants for an elastic material
e = p 1 p K
where K =
e = q 1 q 3G
where G = G =
STRESS PATHS
where K =
Eu 3(1 2 u )
CHAPTER 4 ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT OF FINE-GRAINED SOILS BASIC CONCEPTS Drainage Path Length of drainage path
H dr =
H av H i + H f = 2 4
Relationship between settlement and the change in void ratio for one-dimensional consolidation where z = p
z = z e = H 1 + eo
e 1 + eo e 1 + eo
Soil settlement
z = H
Primary Consolidation Parameters Two slopes for the normal consolidation line (NCL) Coefficient of compression or compression index
Cc =
mv =
z ( z )2 ( z )1 = ( z )2 ( z )1 ( z )2 ( z )1
m2 kN
Two slopes for the recompression line or the unloading-reloading line (URL) Recompression index
Cr =
e zr e 2 e1 = ( ) ( ) log z 2 log z 2 (z )1 (z )1
mvr =
( z )2 ( z )1 zr = ( z )2 ( z )1 z
m2 kN
Over-consolidation Ratio
OCR =
zc zo
CALCULATION OF PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT Primary Consolidation Settlement of Normally Consolidated Fine-Grained Soils
pc = H
where e = Cc log
Primary Consolidation Settlement of Over-consolidated Fine-Grained Soils Case1: The increase in z is such that fin = zo + z is less than zc, thus consolidation occurs along the URL.
pc =
Case 2: The increase in z is such that fin = zo + z is greater than zc, thus there are two components of settlement one along the URL and the other along the NCL.
pc =
or
H (C r log zc + C c log fin ); > zc fin 1 + eo zo zc H fin C r log(OCR ) + C c log ; > zc fin 1 + eo zc
pc =
ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION THEORY Derivation of Governing Equation Rate of change in volume of water expelled in soil element
V q dz dA = t z
Change in volume
V = e dz dA = m v z dz dA = m v u dz dA 1 + e0
q 2h = kz 2 z z Pore water pressure at any time u = hw Partial differentiation of pore water pressure with respect to z 1 2u 2h = 2 z w z 2 Substitution of partial differentiation equations q k z 2 u = z w z 2 One-dimensional consolidation k z 2u u = t m v w z 2 Coefficient of consolidation, Cv
Cv =
kz mv w
Simplified one-dimensional consolidation u 2u = Cv 2 t z Solution of Governing Consolidation Equation Using Fourier Series Governing consolidation equation using Fourier series
u (z, t ) =
2u 0 sin Mz exp(M 2 Tv ) H dr m =o M
Uz = 1
U = 1
2 exp( M 2 Tv ) 2 m =o M
Relationship between time factor and average degree of consolidation for a uniform and a triangular distribution of excess pore water pressure
U Tv = for U < 60% 4 100
2
and Tv = 1.781 0.933 log(100 U) for U 60% Finite Difference Solution of the Governing Consolidation Equation Expansion of the differential consolidation equation using Taylors theorem
u 1 = (u i , j+1 u i , j ) t t
and 1 2u (u 2u i, j + u i+1, j ) = 2 z (z )2 i1, j Governing consolidation equation valid for nodes that are not boundary nodes
u i , j+1 = u i , j +
(z )2
C v t
(u
i 1, j
2u i , j + u i +1, j )
Finite difference equation for an impermeable boundary where no flow across it can occur and
u =0 z
u i , j+1 = u i , j +
(z )2
C v t
(2u
i 1, j
2u i , j )
C =
(e
ep )
t log t p
e t log t p
Time factor if two layers of the same clay have the same degree of consolidation Tv =
(C v t )lab (H dr )2 lab
(C v t )field (H dr )2 field
SAND DRAINS
2 u 1 u u = Ch 2 + t r r t
Time factor for consolidation in the radial direction
Tr =
Ch t 4R 2
Average degree of consolidation for vertical and radial dissipation of pore water pressure Uvr = 1 (1 U)(1 Ur)
TWO SIMPLE MODELS FOR THE SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS Coulombs Model Horizontal force required to initiate movement of an object across a table H = W Coulombs frictional equation = ( )f tan n f Substitution of above two equations at impending motion
f H = = tan (n ) f W
Force equilibrium equations at impending motion
Combining and simplifying above two equations H + tan tan + tan = = W 1 tan 1 tan tan Shear stress when slip is initiated f = (n )f tan + tan = (n ) f tan( + ) 1 tan tan
f = (n ) f tan( )
Dilation angle in Mohrs circle of strain
= tan-1 (
z ) x
Taylors Model
= tan cs + tan p z p
INTERPRETATION OF THE SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS Peak effective friction angle for a dilating soil p = cs + p Peak effective friction angle resulting from a plane strain test p = cs + 0.8p Coulombs equation for critical state shear strength for all soils cs = (n)f tan cs Dilating soils, peak shear strength: Coulombs Model: p = (n)f tan (cs + p) = (n)f tan p
Taylors Model: p = ( )f ( tancs +tan p ) n
Coulombs equation for soils that exhibit residual shear strength r = (n)f tan r Factor of safety for peak condition in dilating soils FS = p
FS =
cs
Passive and active earth pressure coefficients from rearranging above geometry equation (1 )f (3 )f = 1 + sin = Kp 1 sin
(3 )f (1 )f
1 sin = Ka 1 + sin
su =
( 1 ) f ( 3 ) f ( 1 ) f ( ) f 3 = 2 2
LABORATORY TESTS TO DETERMINE SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS Shear Box or Direct Shear Test Peak shear stress
d =
(Px )d
A
cs =
(Px )cs
A
Angle subtended by the best-fit straight line and the horizontal axis in a plot of vertical forces versus horizontal forces
= tan 1 cs
(Px )cs
Pz
Angle subtended by a line from the origin to peak horizontal force point and the horizontal axis
p = tan 1
(Px )d
Pz
Peak dilation angle from plot of horizontal displacement versus vertical displacement
z = tan 1 x
1 =
Pz + 3 A Pz A
Deviatoric stress
1 3 =
Axial strain
1 = z zo
Radial strain
3 = r ro V = 1 + 2 3 Vo
2 ( 1 3 ) 3
Volumetric strain
p =
Deviatoric strain
q =
s u = f =
Pz 1 = 1 2A 2
p =
V = 1 + 2 3 Vo
1 ( p 1 ) 2 1 (31 p ) 2
Radial strain
3 =
Consolidated Undrained Compression (CU) Test Radial strain in CU test as the volume of soil is kept constant during shear phase
3 =
1 2
Pore water pressure changes under axisymmetric conditions u = B[ 3 + A(1 3 )] Excess pore water pressure coefficient at failure u d A = Af = 3 f 1 Ratio of the change in pore water pressure to the increase in lateral principal stress
u = B1 + A 1 1 3 3
( (
) )
FIELD TESTS
su =
2T h 1 d 3 ( + ) d 3
The Dutch Cone Penetrometer and Piezocone Correlation equation between cone resistance and undrained shear strength
su =
qc z Nk
I p 10 5
Cone factor that depends on the geometry of the cone and the rate of penetration N k = 19 ; I p > 10
; 25 o 50 o d
CHAPTER 6 A CRITICAL STATE MODEL TO INTERPRET SOIL BEHAVIOR BASIC CONCEPTS Parameter Mapping Relationship for the slopes of the normal consolidation line (NCL) = Cc C = c = 0.434C c ln(10) 2.3
p c p o
ELEMENTS OF THE CRITICAL STATE MODEL Yield Surface Yield surface equation is an ellipse q2 =0 M2
(p)2 ppc +
Critical State Parameters Failure Line in (q, p) Space Deviatoric stress at failure when the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion for soils is written in terms of stress invariants
q f = M p f
Friction constant for axisymmetric compression
MC =
6 sin cs 3 sin cs 3M C 6 + MC
sin = cs
1 2 + 1 6 sin qf 3 f cs ME = = = p 3 + sin 1 cs f 1 f 3
sin = cs
3M E 6 ME
Failure Line in (e, p) Space Equation representing that the critical state line (CSL) is parallel to the NCL
e f = e ln p f
From the unloading/reloading line, the relationship of the mean effective stress at X, the intersection of the unloading/reloading line with the critical state line
e X = e o + ln
p o p / 2 c
From the critical state line, the relationship of the mean effective stress at X, the intersection of the unloading/reloading line with the critical state line
e X = e ln
p c 2
e = e o + ( ) ln
p c + ln p o 2
FAILURE STRESSES FROM THE CRITICAL STATE MODEL Drained Triaxial Test Deviatoric stress at failure for the effective stress path (ESP) q f = 3(p p ) f o Deviatoric stress at failure for the critical state line (CSL)
q f = Mp f
Mean effective stress at failure obtained from equating the deviatoric stress at failure equations for the ESP and CSL
p = f
3p o 3M
Deviatoric stress at failure obtained from substituting the mean effective stress at failure equation
q f = Mp = f
3Mp o 3 M
Undrained Triaxial Test Failure void ratio e f = e o = e ln p f Mean effective stress at failure e eo p = exp f Deviatoric stress at failure e eo q f = M exp Undrained shear strength su = M e eo exp 2
G (w w A ) = exp s B
Ratio of the undrained shear strength of two samples, A and B, of the same saturated soil
(s u )A (s u )B
q p = Mp o
p c 1 = Mp R o 1; R o > 2 o p o
e = e ln p'
Differentiation of void ratio during unloading/reloading equation de = dp p
dp de = 1 + e o 1 + e o p
Bulk modulus K = p (1 + eo )
Elastic modulus E =
3p (1 + e o )(1 2 )
3p (1 + e o )(1 2 ) 1.5p (1 + e o )(1 2 ) = (1 + ) 2 (1 + )
Shear modulus
G=
alternatively,
max = 1 + ec
pc
G=0.5 max
Vs2 G= g
Initial shear modulus (Jamiolkowski et. al (1991) for clays) 198 a G = 1.3 (R o ) p MPa e Initial shear modulus (Seed and Idriss (1970) for sands) G = k1 p (MPa )
STRAINS FROM THE CRITICAL STATE MODEL Volumetric Strains Total change in volumetric strain
p = e + p p p
Total change in volumetric strain corresponding to the change in void ratio for a stress increment
p =
e 1 p p G = + ln E ( ) ln 1 + eo 1 + eo p p c D
Elastic change in volumetric strain from E to D, the volumetric elastic strain components
e = p
(e e E ) p e = D = ln E 1 + eo 1 + eo 1 + e o pD
p K
p G p = p e = ln p p c 1 + e0 p
Relationship between the change in volumetric elastic strain and plastic strain for undrained conditions
e = p p p
Shear Strains Yield surface F = (p) pp + c
2
q2 =0 M2
dq =0 M2
Another form of the equation for the slope of the yield surface
p c p dq 2 = dp q M2
q 2 dp = = M p dq d p c p p 2
p d q
Plastic strain
p d q = d p p
q M 2 (p p c ) 2
Drained Compression Tests Mean effective stress and deviatoric stress at initial yield
p y = (M 2 p + 18p ) + (M 2 p + 18p ) 2 36(M 2 + 9)(p ) 2 c o c o o 2( M 2 + 9)
q y = 3(p y p ) o
Strain in terms of total volumetric strain and deviatoric shear strain increments 1 = 3 q + p 3 = q +
Undrained Compression Tests Deviatoric stress at initial yield for an isotropically consolidated soil
q y = Mp o
p c 1 p o
1 = ( 1 )o + 1 1 = ( 1 )o + 1 - u 3 = Ko ( 1 )o + 3 = Ko ( 1 )o + 3 - u 3
Pore water pressure under axisymmetric conditions for a saturated soil u = 3 + A(1 - 3) Difference in the total stresses applied to bring a saturated soil to failure
1 3 =
K o (1 )o 3 A
Undrained shear strength at failure 1 1 3 su = 1 = [{(1 )o + 1 } {K o (1 )o + 3 }] = [(1 3 ) + (1 K o )(1 )o ] 2 2 f 2 Simplified equation of the undrained shear strength at failure su = 1 K o (1 )o 3 + (1 K o )(1 )o 2 A
Ratio of the undrained shear strength at failure and the effective stresses
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SIMPLE SOIL TESTS, CRITICAL STATE PARAMETERS, AND SOIL STRENGTHS
(s u )PL (s u )LL
=R
0.6I P
C c = 2.3 1.38I p
Undrained Shear Strength, Liquidity Index, and Sensitivity Ratio of the undrained shear strength of a soil at a water content, w, and its undrained shear strength at the plastic limit
(s u )w (s u )PL
( w PL w ) = exp G s
Undrained shear strength of a soil at a water content, w (s u ) w = (s u ) PL exp(4.6I L ) 200 exp(4.6I L ) Sensitivity describing the ratio of the intact undrained shear strength to the remolded undrained shear strength
St =
(s u ) i (s u ) r
Remolded undrained shear strength (s u ) r 200 exp(4.6I L ) Liquidity index in terms of sensitivity
I L = 1.2 log 10 S t
CHAPTER 7 BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS AND SETTLEMENT OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS COLLAPSE LOAD FROM LIMIT EQUILIBRIUM Moment equilibrium equation for a circular failure mechanism
Pu B s u B B = 0 2
BEARING CAPACITY EQUATIONS Terzaghis Bearing Capacity Equations Ultimate net bearing capacity equations TSA (Total Stress Analysis): q ult = 5.14s u s c + D f ESA (Effective Stress Analysis): q ult = D f N q s q + 0.5BN s
) 2
Shape Factors
s c = 1 + 0 .2 B B B s q = 1 + tan s = 1 0.4 L L L
Skemptons Bearing Capacity Equation Bearing capacity equation based on a TSA for rectangular and square footings on clay
q ult = 5s u (1 + 0.2
Meyerhofs Bearing Capacity Equation Bearing capacity equation for vertical loads TSA: q ult = 5.14s u s c d c + D f ESA: q ult = D f N q s q d q + 0.5BN s d Bearing capacity equation for inclined loads TSA: q ult = 5.14s u d c i c + D f ESA: q ult = D f N q d q i q + 0.5BN d i Meyerhofs bearing capacity factors
N q = e tan tan 2 (45 o + ) ; Nq is the same as Terzaghi. 2
N = ( N q 1) tan(1.4)
d c = 1 + 0.2
Df B
d q = d = 1 + 0.1 K p
1 + sin )= 2 1 sin
Df B
Load inclination factor for loads inclined at an angle to the vertical in the direction of footing width
o i c = i q = 1 90
o i = 1
Load inclination factor for loads inclined at an angle to the vertical in the direction of the footing length for a surface footing (Df = 0)
qa =
q ult FS
Factor of safety
FS =
q ult d
B = B 2e B
and L = L 2e L
Maximum and minimum vertical stresses along the X-axis max = P Pe P 6e B P Pe P 6e B + = = 1 + ; min = 1 A Z BL B A Z BL B
Maximum and minimum vertical stresses along the Y-axis max = P Pe P 6e L P Pe P 6e L + = = 1 + ; min = 1 A Z BL L A Z BL L
Ultimate load
Pu = q ult BL
max = R l max
SETTLEMENT CALCULATIONS Immediate Settlement Elastic settlement
e = P 1 2 s emb wall u EuL
0.38
D f 4 A b 1 + B 3 4L2
0.54
wall
A = 1 0.16 w A b
Df 4 B ) (1 + 3 L B
Primary Consolidation Settlement Method to modify the one-dimensional consolidation equation to account for lateral stresses but not lateral strains
( )
pc SB
= m v u o dz
O
3 (1 A ) u = 1 A + 1
One-dimensional primary consolidation settlement
( )
pc SB
H 3 (1 A )dz = (m v z H) SB = pc SB = m v 1 A + O 1
DETERMINATION OF BEARING CAPACITY AND SETTLEMENT OF COARSE-GRAINED SOILS FROM FIELD TESTS Bearing Capacity and Settlement from the Standard Penetration Test (SPT) Correction factor for overburden pressures 95.8 2 cN = ; c N 2 (Liao and Whitman, 1985) z
1
Corrected N value Ncor = CN CW N Allowable bearing capacity for a shallow footing q a = 0.41N cor a (kPa) Settlement of a footing in a normally consolidated sand at the end of construction
= f s f1q ap B0.7 I c
Compressibility index Ic = compressibility index =
1.71 N 1 .4
= qB0.7
Ic , if q ap < zc 3
Settlement from Cone Penetration Test Settlement proposed by Schhmertmann et al. 1978 =
n (I ) cDct q net co i z i i =1 (q c )i
2 z 1 z 1 I co = 1 for 2 > 3 B 2 B 2
1 z z I co = I cp 1 1 for 4 > 1 B 3 B Settlement from Plate Load Tests Plate settlement when sand behaves like an elastic material 1 ( ) 2 p = q ap B p Ip E Relationship between settlement and plate settlement 2 = p Bp 1+ B
2
CHAPTER 8 PILE FOUNDATIONS LOAD CAPACITY OF SINGLE PILES Ultimate load capacity Qu = Qf + Qb Conventional allowable load capacity
Qa = Qu FS
Q f = ( u ) i (s u ) i (perimeter) i (length) i
i =1
Skin friction for a cylindrical pile of uniform cross section Q f = u s u DL End bearing capacity Q b = f b A b = N c (s u ) b A b -Method (based on ESA) Skin friction
Simplified skin friction equation due to the lateral effective stress being proportional to the vertical stress by a coefficient K
Skin friction equation with the two coefficients K and tan replaced by a single factor i Q f = i (z )i (perimeter )i (length )
i =1 i j
Rigidity index
I rr =
Ir 1 + pI r
G (z )b tan
where I r =
PILE LOAD CAPACITY BASED ON SPT AND CONE PENETROMETER TEST RESULTS The ultimate skin friction is: Qf = ( A + BN ) perimeter length The ultimate end bearing resistance is: Qb = CNAb The end bearing capacity of a single pile is estimated from: Qb = qc Ab The average value cone resistance is calculated from: q c = The geometric mean cone resistance is:
q c1 + q c2 + 2q c3 4
..q c n } n
1
(Q u )g
nQ u
(Q u )g
= nQ u
1 2 2
zx =
fs = G G
es =
Qd I EsL
Elastic moduli that varies linearly with depth, generally for soft soils E s = mz Elastic settlement for soft soils
( es )so
Qd I so mL2
es =
Qd I EsD
K ps A p D2
Empirical relationship between the group settlement factor and the number of piles
Rs = n
The settlement (Timoshenko and Goodier, 1970) Q 1 b = b rb Gb 4 The settlement for group piles in coarse-grained soils from SPT and cone penetration tests can be estimated from:
where:
I = 1 0.08
Qa z 2 2 B + L L + L 3 3
CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT UNDER A PILE GROUP Increase in vertical stress at a depth z in the soft clay layer
z =
(B
+ z )(L g + z )
Q dg
PILE-DRIVING FORMULAS AND WAVE EQUATION Engineering News Record (ENR) equation for the ultimate load capacity
Qu = WR h s + C1
Qu =
1 WR h s + C1
Change in force on the pile over an infinitesimal length z, assuming the pile to be a rod F 2u = E p A p ( z ) = E p A p 2 z z z Newtons second law
2u F = Ap g t 2 z
Above two equations set equal to one another
EpAp
2u 2u = Ap 2 z 2 g t
Simplified equation 2u 2u = Vc2 2 z t 2 Vertical wave propagation velocity in the pile Vc = Epg
CHAPTER 9 TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH POROUS MEDIA Popular form of Laplaces equation for two-dimensional flow of water through soils kx
2H 2H + kz =0 x2 z2
Laplaces equation if the soil were an isotropic material 2H 2H =0 + x 2 z 2 Velocity potential which describes the variation of total head in a soil mass
= kH
H = x x
H = z z
vz =
INTERPRETATION OF FLOW NET Flow Rate Head loss between each consecutive pair of equipotential lines
h = H Nd
h H b b = kh = k L L Nd L
Flow through each flow channel for an isotropic soil from Darcys Law
q = Aki = (b 1) k
Total flow
q = k (
i =1
Nf
N H ) i = kH f Nd Nd
q = H
Nf Nd
kxkz
z = z i w z
Critical Hydraulic Gradient Critical hydraulic gradient that brings a soil mass to static liquefaction
i = i cr =
G 1 G 1 =( s ) w = s 1+ e 1+ e w w
(h )
p j
= H ( N d ) j h h z
Pw = u j x j
j=1
Calculating the uplift force per unit length using Simpsons rule
FINITE DIFFERENCE SOLUTION FOR TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW Using Taylors theorem to describe a flow domain kx k k 2H 2H = x2 (h i +1, j + h i 1, j 2h i , j ) + z2 (h i , j+1 + h i , j1 2h i , j ) = 0 + kz 2 2 z x z x 1 (h i+1, j + h i1, j + h i, j+1 + h i, j1 ) 2(1 + )
1 (h i+1, j + h i1, j + h i, j+1 + h i, j1 ) 4
Head at nodal point (i, j) after subdividing the flow domain into a square grid h i, j =
Finite difference equation for first two types of boundary encountered in practice
h i, j =
v i, j = k x i i, j
Hydraulic gradient
1 (h i+1, j h i1, j ) 2 = x
kx (h i+1, j h i1, j ) 2 x
i i, j
Horizontal velocity of flow at any node (i, j) with hydraulic gradient substitution
v i, j =
Flow rate
K 1 kx q= h i +1,L h i 1,L + 2 (h i +1, j h i 1, j ) + h i +1,K h i 1,K 4 j= L +1
FLOW THROUGH EARTH DAMS Equation from the basic property of a parabola 2p = b 2 + H 2 b Equation obtained from solving for z z 2 = 4p( p + x ) or z = 2 p( p + x ) Flow rate across two vertical sections of an earth dam, KM and GN
q KM = Aki = ( z 1) k dz dx dz = (a sin )k tan dx
q GN = Aki = (a sin 1) k
Equation obtained from the continuity condition at sections KM and GN, qKM = qGN
zk dz = (a sin )k tan dx
a=
Flow through the earth dam b b 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 q = k sin tan cos cos b H cot = k sin cos 2 b H cot Flow through a dam with a horizontal drainage blanket
q = Aki = Ak dz dx
CHAPTER 10 STABILITY OF EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURES BASIC CONCEPTS ON LATERAL EARTH PRESSURES Active and passive lateral earth pressure coefficients
(x ) f ( ) f 1 sin = 3 = = tan 2 45 o = K a (Z ) f (1 ) f 1 + sin 2 1 + sin (x ) f ( ) = 1 f = = tan 2 45 o + = K p (Z ) f ( ) f 1 sin 2 3
Orientation of slip planes to the horizontal for Rankine active and passive states
a = 45 o + 2
p =
4 2
Active and passive lateral earth pressures due to the soil, groundwater and uniform surface stresses
( x )a
= K a z + K a q s + (p w )a
( x )p
= K p z + K p q s + (p w )p
Coulombs active and passive lateral earth pressure coefficient K aC = cos 2 ( ) 1 sin ( + ) sin ( ) 2 2 [1 + { } ] cos ( + ) cos ( ) cos 2 ( + ) 1 sin ( + ) sin ( + ) 2 2 [1 { } ] cos ( ) cos ( )
cos 2 cos ( + )
K pC =
cos 2 cos ( )
Inclinations of the slip plane to the horizontal (active state: + sign, passive state: - sign)
K aR =
K pR =
Inclinations of the slip planes to the horizontal a = p = 1 1 sin + sin sin 4 2 2 2 1 1 sin + + sin sin 4 2 2 2
Inclinations for the active and passive lateral earth forces to the normal of the wall face
a = tan 1
Theoretical depth at which tension cracks extend into the soil z = z cr = 2su
H = H cr =
4su
Maximum depth used in design practice for unsupported excavation in fine-grained soils H cr = 3.8su
K au = K pu = 2 1 +
sw su
Maximum values of wall adhesion should be the lesser value Active state: sw = 0.5su or sw 50kPa Passive state: sw = 0.5su or sw 25kPa
Translation Factor of safety against translation for an ESA (effective stress analysis)
(F S ) T =
{(W w
+ W s + Pa z ) c o s b Pa x s in b } ta n b Pa x c o s b + (W w + W s + Pa z ) sin b
(FS)T
(FS)T
swB Pax
Rotation Location of resultant vertical force at the base of a rigid retaining wall
x = W w x w + Ws x s + Paz x a Pax z a ( W w + W s + Paz ) cos b Pax sin b
Location of resultant vertical force at the horizontal base of a rigid retaining wall
x=
Analysis of sheet pile walls in uniform soils CASE 1: Water level in the backfill and in front of wall different Maximum pore water pressure
uB = 2ad w a + 2d ad (a + d ) w a + 2d a + 2d 3
CASE 2: Wall supports water in front of it and water level in backfill is greater than water level in front of wall Maximum pore water pressure
uB = uC = a (b + 2d ) w a + b + 2d
Pw =
1 a ( b + 2d )(a + 2b + d ) w 2 a + b + 2d
zw =
Anchored sheet pile walls Depth of the bottom of the anchor plate from the ground surface dz = 2Ta ( FS) (K p K a ) ) ) + dz tan (45o + 2 2
BRACED EXCAVATION
(FS) heave = N c
su H + q s
Effective length in which the frictional resistance develops over Le = K aR (z + q s )S z S y (FS) 2 w (z + q s ) tan i = K aR S z S y (FS) t 2w tan i
Required length of reinforcement at the base preventing translation under long-term loading q (K aC ) x 0.5H+ s (K ) H(0.5H + q s ) P (FS)T L b = ax = ac x = tan b H tan b H tan b (FS) T
Allowable tensile strength per unit width of the reinforcing polymeric material ** Ta = Tult
1 FS ID FS cs FS CD FS BD
L R = (H - z) tan 2 (45 o
cs ) 2
K = KaR for z > 6m Length of reinforcement within the failure zone LR = 0.2H + (0.1H + LR =
z ) for z 0.6H 6