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Technology in Society 29 (2007) 2342 www.elsevier.com/locate/techsoc

Emerging wireless technologies for developing countries

Vinoth Gunasekaran, Fotios C. Harmantzis
School of Technology Management, Stevens Institute of Technology, Castle Point on Hudson, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA

Abstract The network readiness of a country indicates the ability of its principal stakeholdersgovernment, citizens, businessesto leverage the potential of information and communication technology (ICT). As broadband becomes more widely diffused in developing countries, there is great potential to increase the number of people who are connected. Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi) and Worldwide interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) are not only revolutionizing broadband communications in the developed world but they also offer to developing countries the opportunity to bridge the digital divide that may exist in their communities. As emerging markets look for opportunities to leap-frog, they can quickly adapt to next-generation wireless technologies like WiFi and WiMAX, thereby gaining advantages over other traditional wired infrastructures. Policymakers should seek suitable strategies to promote vital broadband technologies that offer benecial alternatives to traditional cable and DSL. We propose a strategic wireless framework to address challenges in three different economic sectors of a developing country: Tier I or metro economy, which is well-urbanized and integrated with the global economy; Tier II or sub-urban economy, which has niche economic or development activities compared to Tier I; and Tier III or the rural economy, characterized by informal economic activity and poverty. r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: ICT; Connectivity; Broadband; Wi-Fi; WiMAX; Digital divide; Developing countries; India; Wireless networks

Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 201 216 8279; fax: +1 201 216 5385.

E-mail address: Fotios.Harmantzis@stevens.edu (F.C. Harmantzis). 0160-791X/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2006.10.001

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1. The wireless broadband revolution The Industrial Revolution during the past two centuries produced the most development in the history of mankind [1,2]. But that period of unparalleled growth will be overshadowed by the current technological revolution, namely, the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) revolution. This revolution will not only benet individual citizens but will have a tremendous impact on national economies and the global economy as a whole. As a result of ever-increasing global connectivity, the amount of information that can be transmitted electronically has grown exponentially, resulting in unprecedented ease of communication in most of the countries (see Fig. 1). To realize the true success of the ICT revolution, broadband connectivity is needed, as it is not only information that is shared but also voice, images, video, etc. There is no agreed denition of broadband, but it is usually recognized by its higher transmission speed and always-on connectivity. Broadband is at the heart of the convergence of telecommunication, information technology, and broadcasting [3]. Therefore, there is a great need for modern high-tech communication infrastructure since the focus of applications is on interactivity rather than just information sharing. Wired versus wireless networks: Compared to wireless technologies, wired networks give the same level of connectivity in selected places but they lack ubiquity and affordability. Wireless networks can be deployed much faster with less initial investment; they also offer more exibility in terms of adapting to changing bandwidth requirements. Although some of the equipment and electronics cost have declined, the cost of civil engineering, site acquisition, and laying ber or copper cables remains high. It is essential, therefore, to undertake cost versus benet analyses when considering the deployment of wireless versus wired networks [4,5]. Wireless networks are easy to deploy and the service can be provided within days. As proposed by Pentland [6], wireless technology will be the rst viable infrastructure to serve rural and underdeveloped areas. The rationale behind this assertion is that after the invention of the telephone, it took nearly 100 years for wired telephones to reach a population of one billion people around the world. With the invention of cellular communications, it took about 20 years to reach the same one billion people. Wireless broadband boasts some big benets over wired broadband networks. In the United States, some cities have started the initial phase of deploying city-wide wireless networks with the goal of making ubiquitous broadband a reality. In some cases, a citys goals are merely to improve overall efciency of government services and to deliver lowcost xed broadband wireless Internet services to low-income communities and small businesses. Affordable wireless broadband access has the power to transform an emerging economy by inducing investment and innovation in e-commerce, e-education, telecommuting, e-health, agriculture, e-entertainment, e-government, and almost every other economic activity [7]. More important, however, is the fact that the Internet is on its way to become a day-to-day utility, where affordable and ubiquitous broadband wireless access will be seen as an extension of everyday life. 1.1. Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi) Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi) permits connectivity to the Internet from virtually anywhere at speeds of up to 54 Mbps. Wi-Fi-enabled devices use radio technologies based on the IEEE 802.11 standard to communicate data anywhere within the range of an access point.

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Fig. 1. The evolution of Internet access.

Three main issues must be considered in order to bridge the digital divide: accessibility, availability, and affordability of services and applications. Many technologies have been successful, but fail to address these key challenges; Wi-Fi has the potential to address all of them.

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1.1.1. Accessibility For most developing countries, lack of access to advanced voice and data services is a barrier to network readiness. Within the next few years those who do not have access to the next generation of broadband-driven communication technologies, such as Voice-over Internet Protocol (VoIP), video telephony, and Internet protocol television (IPTV), will be at a great disadvantage [8]. The developing countries need to build a broadband communication infrastructure that is accessible to all, in order to encourage social service and e-government applications. Wi-Fi wireless access technology is undoubtedly an attractive option for data, voice (e.g., VoWi-Fi), and video, compared to other traditional communication infrastructures in the developing world. 1.1.2. Availability In most countries, 2.4 GHz bandwidth is license-exempt, although some may require registration of use. Wi-Fi has become the most common use of unlicensed bandwidth for so-called hotspot or hotzone or hotcity type of coverage. This is because of the widespread availability of Wi-Fi radios that comply with IEEE 802.11b and the upcoming 802.11g/a standards. Wi-Fi has 100% global recognition and has become the single networking standard for all developers, equipment manufacturers, service providers, and end users. The main advantage with Wi-Fi is that large-scale, service-level roaming between different Wi-Fi providers is possible, as Wi-Fi certication has become a de facto standard for IEEE 802.11-based products. 1.1.3. Affordability The benet of using Wi-Fi in the last mile is that the client device is extremely inexpensive due to the large volume of production. Capital investment is also costeffective, providing greater exibility than traditional wired communications, which in turn results in lower prices for Wi-Fi broadband services [5]. Standardization and interoperability between different vendor products have lowered Wi-Fi prices and facilitated its rapid penetration from a niche to a mass market worldwide. For the next few years at least, Wi-Fi will proliferate rapidly as a last-mile option and deliver wireless broadband access at prices dramatically lower than WiMAX. 1.2. WiMAX At some stage, it is expected that WiMAX will reach price and performance levels similar to Wi-Fi. The vendors and service providers who founded the WiMAX Forum [9] believe that it will be widely deployed in a manner similar to that of Wi-Fi. Standardization will not only reduce equipment and component costs, which will enable mass production, but it will also allow interoperability between the equipment of different vendors. The most suitable frequency band for WiMAX is 3.5 GHz band, followed by 5.25.8 GHz band. It is also expected that a 2.52.7 GHz band could be used for WiMAX in some countries. There are several ways in which WiMAX can be deployed. The most popular provides backhaul for Wi-Fi access points, and it also serves as a backhaul between conventional cellular towers. The second type of deployment is last mile, which serves residential and enterprise users as an alternative to cable and DSL [10,11]. The third is similar to metro Ethernet provided on point-to-multipoint sources that compete directly with ber. The fourth type is the mobile version of WiMAX based on the 802.16e standard. It should be

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noted that while it was ratied recently, it is not expected to be quickly adopted by operators. 1.3. VSAT satellite Internet Very Small Aperture Terminals (VSAT) are capable of providing commercially viable connectivity even in the most remote parts of a country. VSAT utilizes a very small satellite transmitting and receiving station that transfers data, video, and voice via satellite. VSAT technology is a wireless communication network set up through a series of receiver/ transceiver terminals ranging in size from 0.6 to 3.8 m in diameter, connected by a central hub through a satellite. VSAT is capable of supporting backhaul systems for any last-mile technology. This technology is useful in geographically dispersed areas and in places where there is no established infrastructure. Recent technological advances in VSATs have reduced antenna size, simplied installation, lowered space requirements, and reduced hardware costs. 2. Infrastructure for an emerging economy: the case of India India is the second most populous country in the world, with an annual GDP per capita of around $1000. In comparison, the United States, Japan, and Western Europe have GDPs of nearly $36,000 per year [12]. Although Indias GDP per capita is very low, the average growth rate of its economy makes it attractive to investors, especially as the government takes a market-oriented approach to liberalizing the countrys economy. Over the past decade, Indias development has followed a process of soft industrialization focused primarily on the services sector. Unlike other countries, Indias development relies primarily on software and information technology services, which is by far the fastestgrowing sector in its economy. One major factor contributing to Indias growth is its large pool of skilled manpower. As Prahalad noted, India has great potential and many opportunities yet to be explored [13]. Focusing mainly on IT services, India is now entering an important new phase in its economic evolution. 2.1. Developing infrastructure for a knowledge-based economy Having already achieved success in IT services and business process outsourcing, Indias goal is to become the engineering and knowledge process outsourcing hub of the world. As future economies become more and more knowledge-driven, it is essential to make every citizens access to computers and the Internetand to thus the worldeasier. Therefore, community telecenter projects are at the top of the developmental hierarchy in India. But this strategy has to be taken further owing to the fact that strong ICT capability is the primary tool for facilitating Indias emergence as a leading knowledge society. In order to build a strong civil society with a knowledge-based economy, however, a free ow of information to all tiers of the economy is needed. Armed with a ubiquitous and affordable broadband infrastructure, India can lay the groundwork for achieving its goal of meeting the challenges of an emerging, knowledge-oriented economy. As described by Moss et al. [14], telecommunication is a critical component of the infrastructure for the 21st century, just as highways were central to the 20th century. Although India began to focus on infrastructure development in the late 20th century, it is

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28 V. Gunasekaran, F.C. Harmantzis / Technology in Society 29 (2007) 2342 Table 1 Indias suitability for ICT-related projects Strength No. 1 in the world in software services Enormous skilled manpower Service sector booming Cheap labor for all classes of work Excellent reputation in global IT market Vast pool of English-language speakers. One of the fastest-growing economies in the world (between 78%). Opportunity IT far less explored in India for its own growth; most IT services done are for Western countries. Second most populous country in the world, but many people not yet connected. Can leverage Chinas hardware manufacturing capability (mixing Chinas hardware with Indias software) Weakness Shortage of physical infrastructure (roads, bridges, dams, etc.) Inadequate power supply Nearly 200 million people live in poverty Lack of proper technology management principles and best practices Lack of manufacturing sector for sustainable growth

Threat Technology is sometimes easy to implement while most of the time bureaucracy, policy issues, and government support are lacking

now in a good position to adapt an ICT-centric infrastructure faster than other developing countries (see Table 1). The Indian government recognizes that ICT projects are the only enablers of social and economic development for underserved regions. Consequently, India has more ICT projects than the rest of the developing world combined. It also holds a record for the most innovative ICT projects for its own growth and development [15]. There are many ICT related projects going on in India where the primary goal is to test, explore, and dene the vision so that ICT can be more helpful to the local community, especially to nancially underprivileged communities. In this market, ICT infrastructure, backed by broadband connectivity, can be a social and economic enabler. 3. Wireless infrastructures for urban, sub-urban and rural communities Modern communication infrastructures vary not just from country to country but also within different parts of the same country. However, a uniform infrastructure is not necessary, since the needs and requirements of cities versus villages are different. It is important, however, to understand each wireless technologys capabilities and limitations, and it is essential to determine appropriate architectures for each tier of the economy (see Fig. 2). It is also critical to identify wireless applications that can be offered in the near future, as well as new applications that can be expected to evolve in the long term. Therefore, when building a wireless broadband communication infrastructure, countries and states need to have both tactical and strategic vision. City-wide Wi-Fi/WiMAX deployment is emerging as a modern, high-tech economic development tool. It is currently used in developed countries, and can also be used in developing nations. It is indispensable that wireless access should be viewed as a fundamental good to public communication in the near future.

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WiMAX + Mesh WiFi
Backhaul-Infrastructure Mesh WiMAX Access-Mesh Wi-Fi

Urban area
Metros and Big cities

Metro Zones
(Urban Area)

Tier I Economy

WiMAX + Wi-Fi Backhaul-WiMAX Access- Long distance Wi-Fi

Sub-Urban area
Small towns and Municipalities

Tier II Economy Hot Zones

(Sub-Urban Area)

VSAT + WiFi
Backhaul-Satellite Access-Wi-Fi long distance

Rural area Villages Tier III Economy

Hot Spots
(Rural Area and Villages)

Fig. 2. Proposed communication infrastructure model for a developing country.

In addition, the social and economic value of a network should be identied. These values are governed by three assumptions [16]:

  

Sarnoffs law: The value of the network is proportionate to the number of customers it reaches. Metcalfes Law: The value of a network is proportionate to the square of the number of users. Reeds Law: The value of the network is proportionate to the number of groups.

In the discussions below, we will show how these laws apply to the networks of a developing country, and India more specically. 3.1. Urban areas: wireless model (metro zones) This model incorporates WiMAX mesh infrastructure with Wi-Fi systems, where both technologies work together to offer cost-effective solutions. WiMAX mesh architecture can cover whole urban areas by forming a number of metro zones. Each metro zone has a WiMAX base station, which serves as a rst-, second-, or third-tier backhaul for all Wi-Fi mesh nodes within its coverage zone. Within each WiMAX cell coverage area, mesh Wi-Fi nodes can be deployed to give blanket coverage. The technology of wireless mesh routing simply chains together separate nodes, which is a low-cost method for providing instant access to thousands of users. Roughly 2040 Wi-Fi access points can be placed inside each WiMAX cell. Leasing costs are much lower as this infrastructure uses a light pole or rooftop of a campus building, which signicantly reduces operating costs. As mobile WiMAX (based on IEEE 802.16e) becomes a reality, it can be substituted for last-mile

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access instead of Wi-Fi nodes. It can use the same backhaul infrastructure, and migration to last-mile WiMAX will be simple. 3.1.1. WiMAX mesh This is a type of mesh where subscriber nodes do not forward packets, in contrast to ad hoc or client mesh. Options in IEEE 802.16 are the point-to-multipoint mode (PMP) MAC (Media Access Control) option and the mesh MAC option. The PMP MAC option is the default architecture supported by the WiMAX Forum. Mesh MAC option is a type of client mesh. This option is not actively discussed or supported as it is still in the research stage [17]. Additional research and standardization work is needed to bring the full benets of mesh architecture or mesh infrastructure to 802.16/WiMAX. Mesh infrastructure has many advantages over client mesh as it is more secure, more predictable, easier to manage, and does not suffer from initial seeding issues. 3.1.2. Wi-Fi mesh IEEE is currently establishing a new standard called 802.11s [18] to extend mobility to Wi-Fi access points within very large Wi-Fi networks. It is also working on wireless LAN MAC and physical layer (PHY) for extended service set (ESS) mesh networking [19]. IEEEs mission is to develop new protocols for auto-conguring paths between access points over self-conguring, multihop topologies in a wireless distribution system that supports both broadcast/multicast and unicast trafc in an ESS mesh. Although this standard is targeted for approval by 2008, many vendors are also developing Wi-Fi mesh systems using their own proprietary technologies. 3.1.3. Advantages of WiMAX mesh infrastructure Operating expenditures can be signicantly reduced by using WiMAX infrastructure for backhauling [4]. WiMAX main base stations that have wired backhaul are placed at the center of a cluster, and Wi-Fi mesh access points are embedded in both WiMAX main and mesh cells. This is done to reduce the operating cost, because rental of wired backhaul networks accounts for a major cash outow [20]. Therefore, to reduce backhaul cost and have efcient use of the wired backhaul, all wireless backhaul links can be aggregated into higher capacity lines. As shown in Fig. 3, a cluster of seven cells (the basic mesh architecture with one hop) has one WiMAX main base station surrounded by six mesh base stations. Each WiMAX mesh and main base station in a mile radius can contain as many Wi-Fi cells as the trafc requires. In this architecture, each WiMAX mesh base station aggregates all the trafc from the Wi-Fi access points and wirelessly backhauls via the WiMAX mesh base station to the WiMAX main base station. From there, it is taken to wired backhaul (ber) and nally to the point-of-presence (POP). For example, using this architecture to cover an area of 65 square miles (a big metro city like Chennai), with a radius of 1 mile for each WiMAX cell, there will be a total of four WiMAX clusters, four main base stations, and 20 WiMAX mesh base stations. Thus, just four wired backhaul facilities from each main base station will serve all the Wi-Fi access points distributed across 65 square miles (see Fig. 4). The economic and the social value of an urban Wi-Fi network can be understood on the basis of Sarnoffs Law which says the value of the network is proportionate to the number of customers it reaches. People who have a Wi-Fi device in the city can access the network from any location by previewing pages at no charge before logging in to the network.

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Fig. 3. WiMAX mesh infrastructure forming metro zones.

3.1.4. Advantages of Wi-Fi mesh for the last mile Wi-Fi access can provide high bandwidth at very low cost. Customers also have many options in terms of bandwidth upgrade and exible service plans. With portable Wi-Fi devices, people can connect to a network while roaming in different metro zones throughout a city. Another advantage of using Wi-Fi in the last mile is its various technology options. WiFi chipmakers have announced a tri-mode chip with IEEE 802.11b/g and 802.11a as their portfolio product [21]. Service providers can strategically deploy their access points to support as many technologies and standards as possible, which allows the clients software to detect and select the best technology available in a given spot. The most well-known Wi-Fi standard, 802.11b, supports a smaller number of audio streams compared to the high-performance standards 802.11a or 802.11g. Nevertheless, 802.11a with eight channels is often the technology of choice for voice applicationsan attractive alternative to 802.11gwhich has only three non-overlapping channels. Wi-Fi service providers could also install access points that include both 802.11a for voice users and 802.11b for data users. Another advantage of these various technology options is the use of 802.11a for Wi-Fi mesh links and 802.11b or 802.11g for Wi-Fi access points to communicate with client devices.

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Fig. 4. Urban infrastructure with metro zones creating a Wi-Fi hot city.

3.2. Sub-urban areas: xed wireless model (hotzones) Wireless infrastructure ranges from congurations that offer less coverage in rural areas to ubiquitous coverage for metropolitan areas. There are also semi-populated areas, other than metro and rural areas; hence, it is necessary to explore an optimal coverage for such sub-urban towns and cities. There capital expenditure is very low, with WiMAX used as backhaul and Wi-Fi for access in a specic geographic zone. Coverage can be provided by Wi-Fi access points with high-gain antennae, to extend neighborhood or campus-area coverage, as shown in Fig. 5. By taking advantage of wireless technologies ranging from Wi-Fi long-range access points to wide-area WiMAX, residents and businesses in suburban regions are able to obtain wireless access. In sub-urban India, broadband penetration is very low. Many small businesses and low-income households simply cannot afford leased lines. In some situations, the connection speeds are also slow and/or insufcient to support many applications.

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Fig. 5. Sub-urban infrastructureWi-Fi hotzones.

The economic and social values of sub-urban Wi-Fi networks illustrate Metcalfes Law: neighborhood or campus-area networks will become more valuable as more people are connected to them. 3.2.1. Neighborhood area network This kind of network is centered at physical communities and neighborhoods like those discussed by Rao [22]. A neighborhood Wi-Fi distribution point that is locally owned can facilitate infrastructure sharing by subscribing members in their own neighborhood. Sometimes a resident who owns the Wi-Fi access point, opens up the network and shares bandwidth with everyone around the neighborhood. In this type of network individual buildings and houses may be packed close together. It may also be possible to use outdoor access points with high-gain antennae to extend coverage but still keep the Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) within the legal limit. The normal Wi-Fi access point

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(802.11b or 802.11g) covers only 300 ft, or roughly 0.0102 square mile; however, outdoor coverage can be increased by using higher-gain antennae [23]. It is also possible to extend coverage up to a kilometer by bearing the additional cost of smart antennae. The value of a neighborhood network is proportional to the number of users in the neighborhood area. By sharing the last-mile infrastructure with multiple users inside the neighborhood coverage area, the network can maximize the return on investment, thereby leveraging the infrastructure investment and xed costs across the total number of neighborhood users. 3.2.2. Campus-area network Campus networks are comprised of infrastructure that supports a university, a school, organizational campuses, shopping complexes, etc. (campus in the broader meaning not restricted to educational facilities). In this type of network, most of the buildings are multidwelling units or apartment complexes. As Fig. 5 shows, WiMAX can coexist with Wi-Fi to deliver megabits of data to the campus area. Thereafter, Wi-Fi can distribute service to individual shops, halls, ofces, lobbies, conference rooms, etc., within the building. Although the WiMAX standard does not describe how much capacity an operator can feed each access point, a single WiMAX base station can handle hundreds of megabits per second of data and can feed one or more Wi-Fi access points mounted on tall buildings inside the campus-area. The value of a particular campus-area Wi-Fi network depends on the number of users inside the buildings. 3.2.3. Mini-high-tech parks for Tier-II cities High-tech habitats can be built not only in major cities but also in rural and expanding sub-urban locations if proper connectivity can be provided. Indias IT-export activities depend mainly on the infrastructure erected in urban cities. As a result, those cities are expected to face congestion in sectors ranging from power to housing. Since metro cities are often at the saturation point, future growth in IT off-shore industries will have to come from entirely new towns outside of Tier I metro cities [24]. In order to promote the growth of IT all over the state, it is imperative that high-tech parks be built in and around all major towns. Such mini-IT parks would be extremely useful for promoting the growth of IT-enabled services, and could provide jobs to millions of Indians. The broadband infrastructure in Tier-II cities required to meet the needs of small IT parks and BPO centers will provide larger locations and enable geographical expansion for IT industries. Every small town can have multiple small high-tech parks, one for each IT and BPO services. Such small high-tech parks would have the same kind of infrastructure as that of the campus-area network discussed above. 3.2.4. Village area network The cost of a village network would be determined by the choice of backhaul since berbased and VSAT-based networks have different cost structures. The main goal is to tap Indias relatively well-laid ber infrastructure, which penetrates most towns and brings low-cost connectivity to surrounding villages, some of which border sub-urban areas. A terrestrial ber backbone costs less compared to a VSAT network. Therefore, villages near a larger town can take advantage of the ber backbone; a remote village can be connected via VSAT link. From the ber backbone, a point-to-point or point-tomultipoint WiMAX link can be used to connect one or more villages near the town, thus

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enabling WiMAX to distribute locally among all rural community groups in a given village using long distance Wi-Fi technology (see Fig. 6). 3.3. Rural areas: wireless model (Wi-Fi hotspots) The economic and social value of a rural Wi-Fi network is governed by Reeds Law: the value of the village network is proportionate to the number of groups in the given rural community. A typical village in India has about 1000 people, most of whom live in straw huts made somewhat sturdier by wood and mud. Many villages are remote, some hundreds of kilometers from a ber backbone. The typical villager cannot afford any kind of personal communication device or the subscription fee to access the communication infrastructure. Despite their poverty, however, they still need connectivity, and shared devices and access points are fundamental to village connectivity. VSATs are capable of providing commercially viable connectivity even in the most hard-to-reach regions. VSAT and WiFi are complementary; when combined they have the potential to become a medium through which data and voice solutions for remote areas can be provided seamlessly. As Fig. 6 shows, the VSAT hub provides backhaul to Wi-Fi access points; then the school, clinic, community center, etc. within a kilometer from the hub can be linked using Wi-Fi radios. This kind of infrastructure is used to incorporate VSAT with Wi-Fi systems where both technologies coexist to offer a cost-effective solution. Outdoor Wi-Fi units can be used to serve end-user groups while also taking advantage of a satellite connection as a backhaul system to reduce the time for service provisioning and to reach remote parts of the country where there is no connectivity. Each village needs a kiosk to house the VSAT system; from there it can be distributed to other groups within a 1 km radius using Wi-Fi. In each location, a Wi-Fi outdoor access point can be fed by a dedicated satellite channel of 512 kbps2 Mbps for downlink and between 516256 kbps for uplink. The hub-to-remote outroute service should have a minimum of 512 kbps and remote-to-hub inroute service can have 256 kbps in the initial stage of deployment, so that it supports shared access for at least two to three groups, in a village. In the initial stage, each location can start with two or three groups with only one Wi-Fi client device-enabled PC in each location. By increasing the transmission rate for VSAT systems, more groups can be added to the network so that more users can share the same network. Each remote village can be separately fed by the VSAT systems; the systems can act independently of each other. 3.3.1. Village bandwidth consortia VSAT satellite networks cost more than ber-based backbone networks. VSAT networks are easier to cost out because the service is delivered directly and can be priced according to the services provided for a particular link. The amount of bandwidth has a signicant impact on pricing, and there will be considerable savings if all the remote villages join together to purchase their bandwidth in larger volume. The central or state government should offer support to form consortia at the regional or national level. The consortia can be groups of villages or a single sub-continental VSAT organization that would aggregate all the demand and provide connectivity to all villages at very low cost or for non-prot. This is necessary due to the limited availability of national backbone in remote areas. The consortia can focus primarily on the purchase of satellite bandwidth for underserved or backward areas. The VSAT connection in a particular village can be

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Fig. 6. Wireless infrastructure for rural Wi-Fi hotspots in India. Source: Google images.

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charged based on uplink and downlink speeds and the number of groups sharing the network. The village system can split the cost between different groups, and extra revenue can be collected from each kiosk or hub. 4. Deployment of Wi-Fi country-wide A network infrastructure with pure connectivity alone is not enough to enhance the socio-economic class of a community. Therefore, simultaneous development of innovative applications and new service models are needed. As ubiquitous wireless technologies and services continue to expand, it is necessary to design new and appropriate applications. The social goal of ubiquitous connectivity is to provide increased access to information for all members of the community; its economic goal is to develop information as a commodity along with knowledge products and services. The conuence of these two goals brings together people, information infrastructure, content, and applications. 4.1. Applications driving ubiquitous connectivity in metropolitan areas The quality of Indias urban infrastructure, even in the metropolitan cities, is not sophisticated enough to compete with global economic activity. Although the metropolitan cities of India contribute a great deal to the countrys emerging economy, in order to accelerate growth an advanced ICT infrastructure backed by ubiquitous broadband connectivity is critical. Metro-zone wireless access is a crucial part of the strategy to grow the countrys tourism industry. This infrastructure brings low-cost Internet services not only to local residents but also to temporary visitors. Indian cities such as Bangalore, Chennai, Hyderabad, Mumbai, and Delhi have received worldwide attention because of their global IT services and businesses. Yet, the transportation infrastructure is so poor in these metro areas that affordable city-wide wireless broadband access would be an incentive to encourage telecommuters. It would offer them the convenience of conducting business from their homes and provide broadband as a necessary tool. Customers could also choose from various access speed options, ranging from a guaranteed 128 kbps to several Mbps. This infrastructure would be especially helpful in urban settings, as it would be more productive for some employees to work from their home, enabling them to save time and commuting costs. This also aids the local economy by providing easy Internet access to businesses, especially to a mobile workforce. The metro-zone broadband wireless network has more potential for small businesses than cable or DSL. The last-mile Wi-Fi network in urban settings allows local businesses to more effectively manage and sell their products and services. Broadband helps businesses save on telephone costs by using broadband phone service (VoIP) and videoconferencing to save travel expenses [8]. With a modern communication infrastructure, business operations could move away from the main cities to less dense sub-urban areas, allowing their employees to work from any location virtually and eliminating the need for face-to-face contact [14]. 4.2. Applications and service model innovations for sub-urban economies The IT service economy and most of the high-tech parks are focused on the urban segment of the population, frequently at the expense of growth in the sub-urban, or Tier II,

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cities. To achieve unied growth and to bring small towns and cities into the growing knowledge economy, there needs to be some form of ICT infrastructure that can address all the developmental issues. A small town can have a mini-IT park that would not need gigabytes of broadband connectivity; megabytes would sufceand it could be easily accomplished with the support of WiMAX technology. Another application is neighborhood-based networks. Since many small businesses and activities are neighborhood-based, one needs to tailor the network and content so that they appeal to the local community. There can also be unique services and content for each neighborhood; this kind of network can serve as a forum for idea exchange, education, and community enrichment [22]. Each neighborhood with access to the network can form an association using its own infrastructure to develop its community. 4.3. Applications and eradication for rural wireless deployment The ability of satellites to provide ready access to any remote part of the country and the speed with which a hybrid solution (e.g., satellite with Wi-Fi) can be deployed means that more and more villages can be online-enabled in a short period of time. The infrastructure for rural environments should have multi-functional communication capabilities while also being robust and sustainable. Generally, multi-purpose community Internet kiosks are preferred instead of individual household connections. Kiosks could be used to send bill payments to government departments, le complaints, and follow up on electronic applications. Shared hotspots are best when people gather in particular places in the village for various activities. ICT provides effective tools and techniques for a variety of applications such as e-education, e-health, e-learning, e-governance, e-entertainment, etc. 4.3.1. e-Education Affordable broadband technologies may enable new ways of teaching and learning among the rural population. Wireless technologies can connect rural schools and colleges to urban institutes, thereby spreading education in a more pervasive manner. This also facilitates improvement of the education system by reducing the paucity of teachers in remote areas. 4.3.2. e-Health Connectivity for health facilities has been identied as a priority in order to enhance the quality of healthcare in many ICT projects around the world. An interesting health application of wireless technologies is linking a rural clinic to a larger hospital, thus enabling data, voice, and video transmissions between a rural patient and the city-based doctor. 4.3.3. Connecting farmers to commodity markets Farmers in India are perennially affected by uctuations in the commodities market [25]. However, the information needed to manage risk and track price updates and trends in commodity trading in the volatile global market were not available to them. Connectivity will help them check weather forecasts and register the prices of their agro-products at the nearest government market or futures exchange [26]. Farmers can also purchase fertilizers, herbicides, and other raw materials for their agricultural work.

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4.3.4. e-Tourism Every village has some small place devoted to religion, and this place could be one of many locations where Wi-Fi infrastructure could be deployed. Connectivity in the temple becomes a strategic investment in the villages hospitality. The main goal is to attract people from neighboring cities and towns to enjoy a religious experience while still remaining connected to their business world. 4.3.5. e-Village A village website portal helps to sell local handicrafts, agriculture, horticulture, and other local products via the website. This portal can also provide comprehensive information about a particular village. 5. Discussion 5.1. ICT not a panacea ICT infrastructure, along with necessary improvements in other key physical infrastructural areas like roads, airports, dams, electricity, bridges, etc., is necessary for emerging markets to become competitive in the global economy. Although ICT is not a panacea for every problem, nor is it an end in itself, it is a huge step toward reaching out to equalize the huge disparities between different communities in the same country. The digital divide is another challenge that can be addressed by building an ICT infrastructure for rural areas so that they can address the needs of the poor (e-eradication). By erecting ICT infrastructure in all tiers of the economy, it is possible to make every individual a global citizen by providing connectivity to everyone. 5.2. Policy issues The success of capacity building depends not only on technical analysis but also on its integration within the broader social, economic, and political environments. The communication services industry has enjoyed major growth since India put itself on the path of economic reform. Indias communication services industry is one of the fastest expanding in the world, offering unique opportunities for domestic and international investors. The Indian telecommunications network is already the fth largest in the world and the second largest among the emerging economies in Asia [27]. Growth in recent years has been mainly in the cellular arena, while broadband Internet is still in its nascent stage, with lesser penetration rate and still overpriced. Although the Internet is available in cybercafes in the cities and sub-urban areas, there is still a huge divide between communities in terms of connectivity. Recently, railway reservations, weather information, online investing, banking, bill payments, and other e-commerce services have been increasingly accessed online. Broadband availability in India just reached 1.3 million by the end of 2005. However, this represents only 0.1% of the total population, and roughly one-tenth of total Internet subscribers [28]. This is due to the focus of various service providers on wired broadband access, by trying to make use of the existing copper loops [28]. There is also no support for alternative broadband technologies and the prices remain high for broadband access. In some situations, for every extra megabyte downloaded, the customer is charged extra to

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their existing monthly bill. Since we believe ubiquitous broadband is a daily necessity for every citizen and business, it is essential for policymakers to explore options such as publicly owned or publicprivate partnerships to build a Wi-Fi/WiMAX infrastructure throughout the country, thereby promoting competition in the broadband market. In some situations the politics of alternative broadband access will be of special interest if incumbents want to protect their licensed monopolies or duopolies. Although policymakers in India are aiming for liberalization in the telecom sector, they should seek suitable strategies to promote economically vital broadband technologies such as Wi-Fi and WiMAX. 5.3. Best practices and sustainability Although the ultimate goal is to bring ubiquitous broadband connectivity, many ICT initiatives have failed due to the lack of well-adapted, step-by-step approaches. If the rural infrastructure is built using non-private investment, then it is necessary to provide urbanquality services at rural prices to the villages. After deploying the ICT infrastructure, focus should shift to the use of technology. Giving connectivity alone does not solve all the problems; to be sustainable it should facilitate the needs and resolve the communication challenges of each stakeholder in every tier of the economy. The true potential is realized only when people participate in a meaningful way with others, beyond their boundaries. On the other hand, small businesses should explore additional options with connectivity, nding ways to perform their businesses more efciently than before. Last, but not least, the government should provide e-governance and all critical services to their citizens. 6. Conclusion In the coming years, the growth of emerging countries such as India will be increasingly driven by the knowledge and service-based sectors, where the ease of the information ow will be a key determinant for success. Therefore, deployment and implementation of an alternative, affordable communication infrastructure that utilizes emerging wireless technologies could be the rst step toward narrowing the digital divide. To provide the best connectivity in a short period of time, the emerging wireless technologies should be positioned to reach every village, town, and city in India, thereby enabling a modern high-tech network infrastructure across the country. This kind of fully integrated, modern broadband wireless infrastructure throughout all tiers of the economy will foster equal and sustainable socio-economic development. We strongly believe that ICT, backed by modern wireless technologies, will take any developing country to a new level of information economy and wealth creation. Finally, we believe that the core objective of national policymakers should be to develop suitable strategies that promote Wi-Fi and WiMAX technologies, thereby maximizing the social and economic benets to the country and its citizens. Acknowledgments Our thanks go to Dr. A. Curtis, Director for Telecommunications and Project Management, Dr. K. Ryan, Professor of Telecommunications Management, and Dr. E.A. Friedman, Director of the Center for Technology Management for Global Development,

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all at Stevens Institute of Technology, for their valuable input regarding wireless technologies and their specic applications in developing countries. We also thank Dr. N.K. Shankaranarayan and Dr. Byoung Jo J. Kim, both with AT&T Labs, for their invaluable comments that helped us to understand the technical aspects of infrastructure mesh topologies. References
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Vinoth Gunasekaran is a PhD candidate in Telecommunication Management, at the School of Technology Management, Stevens Institute of Technology. His current research focuses on emerging wireless networks, including technologies, strategies, businesses, and socio-economics. In 2004, he interned in the Mobile Networking Research Group at AT&T Labs. While in India, he worked on various startups in information technology and e-commerce businesses.

Fotios C. Harmantzis is assistant professor at the School of Technology Management, Stevens Institute of Technology. His research interests are in the areas of quantitative investments under uncertainty, valuation of real options, risk management, and the economic and nancial aspects of high-tech and telecom. He teaches courses in the nancial engineering and telecommunication management programs.