COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

Data: - Any alphabetic, numeric and symbol may be called data.

File: - Collection of data is called file.
Dir: - Collection of files is called directory.
Information: - Processed form of data is called information.
Command: - Set of instruction is called command.
Program: - Group of command is called program.
Software: - It means a set of programs which supply instructions to a computer.
Hardware: - Physical parts or components of computer system are called hardware.
Key Board: - Key Board is an input device of the computer. Program and data are
entered by the Key Board. A key board is like a type writer.
Mouse: - Mouse is a hand operated input device used to move the pointer of
cursor on the screen or to select options.
Scanner: - Scanner is an input device. It is just like photocopy machine. It scans
to image or text and copy the scanned image or text in the computer.
Monitor: - Monitor is an important out put device of the computer. It is also called
VDU. It is used to display data information on the screen.
Printer: - A printer is an output device which gives the result in printed form.
Speaker: - Speaker is an output device. It is just like the mouth of the computer. It
gives the result in the form of sound when we can hear.
Digital Cameras: - Digital Cameras takes pictures, which get stored in digital format in a
memory device as floppy disk.
Microphone: - Today microphone is an integral part of most computer systems. It
converts spoken words in digital format.
Computer: - It is an electronic device that accepts the data, process the data and
give the result in the required form.
Analog Computer: - The analog computer accepts processes and generates continuous data.
Digital Computer: - The digital computer accepts processes and generates discrete data.
Hybrid computer: - Hybrid computer is complex of both computers.
CPU: - All the actions performed by the computer system are initiated,
performed and controlled by the CPU. It is the brain of the computer.
Operating System: - An operating system is a set of programs used to manage the
operations of the computer system.
Compilers: - Compilers translates a source program that is written in a high level
language in to machine language called object program.
Interpreters: - It translates each source program statement in to a sequence of
machine instructions and then executes these machine instructions
before translating the next source language statement.
Assembler: - An assembler is a program used to convert the program written in
assembly language in to machine language.

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 DEFINITION OF COMPUTER
“Computer is an electronic device that accept the data, process the data and gives the result in
the required form”.
“Computer is an electronic device which can receive inputs (data) as raw material and
process it according to the program instruction to produce the output in a useful form”.
“The word” Computer” comes from the word “compute” which means to calculate. So a
computer is normally considered to be a calculating device that can perform arithmetic and
logical operation at an enormous speed but accurately”.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS
Speed: - Computer is a very fast device that can process of instructions within seconds for
which human being may take several days or month. Its speed is measured in terms of
Milliseconds (1/103 of a second), Microseconds (1/106 of a second), Nanoseconds (1/109 of a
second) and Picoseconds (1/1012 of a second).
Accuracy: - Computer maintains high degree of accuracy, errors can occur in computerized
system also but most of them occur due to human mistakes.
Storage: - Computer can store very large amount of information in the secondary storage
devices. This information stays with the computer for further use.
Consistency: - A computer can work for hours without lack of concentration, tiredness or
emotional feelings.
Reliability:-Computers are highly reliable, very accurate and do not make mistakes in
arithmetic calculations.
Versatility: - Computer can perform various types of jobs at the same time.
Diligence: -Computer is a very constant, earnest and Carefulness.

Computer Vs Human Being

Computer Computer Human Being
Element
Input Input to the system in machine- Input to the system is through ears,
readable form. eyes, mouth or nose.
Main Hold input data and instruction Data and instructions are stored in
storage temporarily before it is processed.brain and can be recalled whenever
needed.
Secondary It is as extension to main storage Use pocket-diaries, notebooks etc.
storage and the contents storage in it to store contents for permanent
are retained permanently. use.
Arithmetic It performs arithmetic and Brain performs comparisons and
& Logical logical calculations and makes calculations in order to make
Unit comparisons. logical judgments.
Control It coordinates and controls the Brain controls mental actions on
Unit operations of a computer the basis of calculations and
system. comparisons.
Output Output the results via VDU, Output is either in writing or a
printer, plotter etc. speech using mouth.

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 HISTORY OF COMPUTER
ABACUS:-
First of all Chinese introduced the Abacus, It is a manual calculating device and is still used
as a calculator in chine.

PASCAL’S CALCULATOR:-
Blasé Pascal, a French Mathematician invented an adding machine around 1641. It was
capable of performing addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

BABBAGE’S Difference and Analytical Engine:-

“Charles Babbage” (1792-1871), a 19th century professor at Cambridge University. He is
known as the father of the modern digital computer.
The difference engine made by him in 1822 used the idea of constant difference.
Babbage worked on the difference Engine and designed a larger and improved calculating
machine in 1834 known as the analytical engine.

The Mark I Computer:-

In 1944 Harvard University Professor, Howard G. Aiken, in collaboration with IBM
(International Business Machine) built the Harvard Mark I Computer.
It was capable of performing arithmetic and logical operations.
The machine was extremely reliable but very bulky being 50 feet long and 8 feet wide.

GENERATION OF COMPUTERS
First Generation Computer (1946-1959)
The main components in use were the vacuum tubes (likes those in the old radios, which
warmed up after a minute or show, and glowed red).The vacuum tubes were also called as
valves. The first computer used 18000 vacuum tubes weighted 30 tons and occupied on area
(9 meter X 15 meter) of a big hall. Vacuum tubes took ages to warm up and consumed
massive amounts of electricity.
Some of the computers of this generation are ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculator), UNIVAC-1 (Universal Automatic Computer) and IBM 650.
Main Features:
 Vacuum Tubes Technology.
 Speed in Milliseconds.
 Machine and assembly language were used for programming.
 Punched card for input.
 Magnetic tape and magnetic drum for external storage.
 It is used for scientific computation, pay roll processing and business applications.
Drawbacks:
 Very large size.
 Consumed lot of power.
 Poor reliability.

Second Generation Computer (1959-1965)

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The real breakthrough in computers started with the discovery of the transistors. Transistor is
a tiny semi-conductor device; the size is about 1/50th of a vacuum tube, which can perform
the same function as that of a large vacuum tube in computers.
Some of the computers of this generation are IBM 1620, and IBM 1401.
Main Features:
 Transistor based Technology.
 Speed in Microseconds.
 High-level language FORTRAN and COBOL were used for programming.
 Magnetic disks were used for external storage.
 Wider commercial used.

Third Generation Computer (1965-1971)

As the next step functions of a number of transistors were put together on a single chip of
silicon. These chips are called integrated circuit (IC) chips. A small chip, the size of a
fingernail could have the equivalent of 200 to 2000 transistors.
Some of the computers of this generation are IBM 360, IBM 370.
Main Features:
 Integrated Circuit based Technology.
 Speed in nanoseconds.
 High-level language Pascal was used for programming.
 Smaller, faster and more reliable than second generation computers.
 Low power consumption, low heat generation and more reliable due to the use of ICs.

Fourth Generation Computer (1971-1980)

From 1970 onwards web are in the era of fourth generation computers, in which the
electronic component was further miniaturized through Large Scale Integration (LSI) of
circuits on the silicon chip.
Now the advancement of chip technology has come to be known as Very Large Scale
Integration (VLSI), where millions transistors are packed in a single chip. The size of the
chip is shrinking and computer is reducing.
What used to be a room size computer at one time is now available as Desktop computer or
Laptop computer with much more computational power. Along with the reduction in size
there is significant reduction is price too.
Main Features:
 Large scale integration Technology.
 Speed in nanoseconds.
 Developed for microprocessor based technology.
 Very small in size and very reliable.
 Negligible heat generation.

Fifth Generation Computer

From 1982 research is going on a fifth generation computer that will have the thinking power
just like that of the human brain. Those computers, which are based on Artificial Intelligence
(AI), are designed to be “Thinking” computers capable of storing large amount of data to be
retrieved as and when required to solve a problem.
Possibilities of these computers:
 Ability to communicate with spoken words.
 Capability of human sense organs of speech sight and sound.

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  Ability to find solution of problems using database and information already stored in
computer memory.
 Speed is expected to be measured in picoseconds.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
ANALOG COMPUTER
The analog computer accepts processes and generates continuous data. It is a specific type of
computer that handles or process information which is of a physical nature such as voltage,
temperature, pressure etc., so analog computer used in laboratory only.

DIGITAL COMPUTER
The digital computer accepts processes and generates discrete (discontinuous) data. It process
information which essentiality in a binary form. Digital computers fall in to range called
Micro Computer, Mini Computer, Mainframes, Workstation and Super computers.

HYBRID COMPUTER
Hybrid computer is basically made from specific characteristic of analog and digital
computer i.e. hybrid computer is complex of both computers.

CLASSIFICATION OF DIGITAL COMPUTERS

Computer may be classified in usage wise and size wise.
1. Usage wise classification
Special Purpose computer: - These computers can be designed for a specific class of
applications. Their instruction set is permanently stored in computer chips. It lacks versatility
but performs the assigned task quickly and efficiently.
General purpose Computer: -These computers can be used for a large variety of
applications and have versatility in use.

2. Size wise classification

Size wise digital computers may be classified in to the following categories.
 Micro Computer (Personal Computer)
 Mini Computer
 Main-frame Computer
 Workstation
 Super Computer

Micro Computer (Personal Computer): -

Personal computers are designed for personal use of individuals and meant for small business
units and office automation systems.
It is small in size have a wide range of applications and low cost.
Main Features:
 Small in size.
 Have a wide range of applications.
 Low cost.
 8 to 32 bits word length.
These computers are mostly used for a variety of application like:

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  Computer literacy.
 Database Management.
 Desk Top Publications.
 Computer Aided Design.
 Multimedia and advertising applications.
These Computers are divided in the three categories on the basis of physical structure:
 Desk Top PCs
 Lap Top PCs
 Note Book PCs
Examples are:
 Pentium Processor.
 Duel Core Processor.

Mini Computers: -
Mini Computers have multiple processing units in a single CPU out of witch each processing
unit can do a separate kind of work. Its processing needs multiple users. It is an improved
version of micro Computer.
Main Features:
 Time sharing system.
 32 bits or more word length.
 Faster and more powerful than microcomputers.
 Used in colleges, universities, research organizations and industries for multiple user
and interactive applications.
Examples are:
 VAX
 CDC 6600

Mainframe Computers: -
These are huge machine with high capacity of processing using parallel processing
capabilities. The data transfer rate is 8 Million byte/second. It can be used in Centralized
Train Reservation System, Airline Reservation System etc.
Main Features:
 Faster and more powerful than minicomputers.
 32 bits or more word length.
 Can support more than 100 users in timesharing mode.
 Used in universities, bank and large industries.
Examples are:
 IBM 3090
 VAX 8842

Workstations: -
Workstations are desktop machine which have more powerful processors – speeds of about
10 times of PCs. Example of workstations are:
 Silicon Graphics Workstation of SUN Systems.

Super Computers: -
Super computers are used for solving multivariable mathematical problems witch require
repetitive floating point arithmetic operations on a large array of numbers, known as vector

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super computer. These computers are mostly used in the field of atomic and nuclear physics
etc.
Some famous super computers are:
 CRAY-1
 CRAY-11
 PARAM 5000
 PARAM 10000
INPUT DEVICES AND OUTPUT DEVICES
INPUT DEVICES:-
 KEY BOARD
 MOUSE
 SCANNER
 DIGITAL CAMERA
 MICROPHONE
KEY BOARD:-
Key Board is one of the most important input devices of the computer. Program and data are
entered by the Key Board. A key board is like a type writer. It contains about 100-125 keys.
Keys of a key board can be classified into five categories:
 Alphabets Keys - Used to enter alphabets.
 Numeric Keys – Used to enter numbers.
 Special keys – Perform specific function.
 Function Keys – Used to perform a set of operations. These are F1 to F12.
 Arrow keys – used to move cursor in four directions Right, Left, Up and Down.

Some Other Keys Describes Briefly

Combination Keys: - The keys, which are always use with other keys are called combination
keys. There are 3 combination keys in our keyboard. Alt, Ctrl, and Shift.
Caps Lock: - If the caps lock is on capital letter will be written and if the caps lock is off
small letter will be written.
Enter Key: - This key mainly used to apply any command.
Delete Key: - This is used to remove or delete the letter on which lies after the cursor.
Backspace: - This is used to remove or delete the letter, which lies before the cursor.
Esc: - This key is used to escape from any mistake or cancel the command which we don’t
want to apply.
Space Bar: - This key is used to give the space between two words or letters during writing
the text.
Tab: - This key is also used to give space between 2 words or letters but when we want to
give more space then we use this key. This key left the space of 5 letters.
Cursor Keys: - Move to cursor left, right, up and down.

MOUSE:-
Mouse is a hand operated input device used to move the pointer of cursor on the screen or to
select options.
Mouse actions:
I. Clicking
II. Double Clicking

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 III. Dragging
Types of Mouse:
Mechanical Mouse
Optical mouse

SCANNER:-
Scanner is an input device. It is just like photocopy machine. It scans to image or text and
copy the scanned image or text in the computer.
Types of Scanners:
Flat Bad Scanner
Hand Held Scanner
Joysticks: -
Children can play with computers in a simple way by the use of Joystick, while playing video
games.
Digital Cameras: -
Digital Cameras takes pictures, which get stored in digital format in a memory device as
floppy disk.
Microphone: -
Today microphone is an integral part of most computer systems. It converts spoken words in
digital format.

OUTPUT DEVICES:-
 MONITOR
 PRINTER
 SPEAKERS

MONITOR
Monitor is an important out put device of the computer. It is also called VDU (Visual Display
Unit) a monitor is a T.V. like device used to display data information on the screen.
Classification of monitors:
Digital Monitor:-
A digital monitor accepts digitals signals. The term digital therefore refer only to the type of
input received from video adapter. Digital monitors are fast and produce clear images.

Analog Monitor:
This is the traditional type of color display screen that has been used years in TVs. In reality,
all monitors based on CRT technology (except flat panel display) are analog. Some monitors
are called digital monitor because they accept digital signals from the video adapter.

PRINTER
A printer is also an output device which gives the result in printed form.
Types of Printers:
1. DOT METRIX PRINTER
 Cheapest, widely used
 Speed of the printer is slow and quality of printing is not good.
2. INK-JET PRINTER
 It produces qualitative printing.
 They are expensive.

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3. LASER PRINTER
 It produce high quality printing
 It is very expensive.

SPEAKERS
Speaker is an output device. It is just like the mouth of the computer. It gives the result in the
form of sound when we can hear.

C.P.U. (CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT)

The Central processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer system. All the actions
performed by the computer system are initiated, performed and controlled by the CPU. The
CPU works with the binary signals only. Every instruction that is executed first gets stored in
the memory unit, and then it gets processed by the CPU.

Input Unit: -
 It accepts the data from outside using keyboard, mouse, CDs or other sources.
 It converts the data in to binary electronic signals which can be understood by the
CPU.
 It supplies the converted instructions or data to the computer for further processing.
 Input data may be graphical, audio, visual, mechanical etc.
 Some of the input units are Keyboard, Mouse, Magnetic Tapes and Disks etc.

Memory Unit: -
 Memory is used to store binary codes of instructions you want the CPU to execute.
 Each and every instruction to be executed by the CPU is first brought in the main
memory.
 It cannot be executed while it is stored on the secondary storage devices like disk,
tape etc.
 The memory stores all the data currently being processed as well as the program that
controls the processing.
 A memory can be considered to be consisting of four groups of memories.
I. Internal Processor Memories
II. Primary Memory
III. Secondary Memory
IV. Cache memory

Control Unit: -
 It is the most critical part of the CPU so it is called the brain of the computer.
 It controls activities of the other units such as input, output units and ALU etc.
 It obtains instructions from the memory, interrupts them decide the action to be taken
and directs other units to execute them.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit: -

 The arithmetic unit performs a number of calculations and computations.
 The logic unit is used to apply logic; i. e. used for comparisons, for certain types of
test and takes decisions. All such types of logical operations are done in this unit.

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Output Unit: -
 Output unit functions are the opposite of the input unit.
 It is an interface for communication between machine and human.
 The output that comes from the CPU is in the form of binary signals which get
converted in to human understandable form, i.e. graphic, audio, and visual, language
form, etc.
 Some of the popular output devices are Visual Display Unit (VDU), Printer, Magnetic
Disks, and Magnetic Tapes etc.

MEMORY
Memory is an essential component of every computer. It is used for storing programs as well
as data for the purpose of data processing.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MEMORY
Location:-
 What is the location of the memory? It may be either internal or external.
 Internal memory includes main memory, CPU’s registers etc.
 External memory includes peripheral storage devices like disk, tape etc.
Capacity:-
How much data memory can store refers to its capacity. It is measured as follows.
1 Bit=the smallest unit of information understand by the computer. It is represented ad either
8 Bit = 1Byte (one character (space) i.e. a, 6 etc.
1024 Bytes =1 Kilo Bytes (Half page of text)
1024 Kilo Bytes =1 Mega Byte (five hundred pages of text)
1024 Mega Bytes =1 Giga Byte
1024 Giga Bytes =1 Tera Byte
1024 Tera Bytes =1 Peta Byte
1024 Peta Bytes =1 Exa Byte
1024 Exa Bytes =1 Zeta Byte
1024 Zeta Byte =1 Yeta Byte

Access Method:-
 Sequential Access: - in this method information in the file is processed in order, one
record after the other.
 Direct or Random Access: -Random access file organization provides, accessing the
records directly.
 Indexed Sequential file access: - This method combines the advantages of sequential
and direct file access.
Performance:-
 Access Time: -It is the time taken read or write from or in to a desired location on the
disk.
 Memory Cycle Time: -It consists of the access time plus any additional time required
before starting an access.

TYPES OF MEMORY
At present three types of memory are commonly used in modern computers.

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 1. CPU registers.
2. Primary Memory or Main Memory
3. Secondary Memory or Static Memory
CPU registers: -
The CPU registers are a part of the CPU. Therefore its speed is as fast that of processor itself.

Primary Memory: -
 It is the main or principal internal memory.
 CPU communicates directly with the main memory.
 It is used for storing program as well as data currently needed by the CPU.
 It is very large memory as than CPU registers but smaller than the secondary memory.
 The speed of the main memory must match the fast speed of the CPU so
semiconductor (Chip) technology is used in the main memory.
There are two types of primary memory
Magnetic Core Memory: -
It was introduced in 1955.
It consisted of tiny rings or core of magnetized material.
A ring magnetized clockwise-represented 0 bit and in counter clockwise direction
represents 1 bit.
Each core store 1 binary bit and 7 or 8 cores.
Semi Conductor Memory: -
 It was introduced in 1971 by IBM.
 It is faster and cheaper than magnetized core memory.
 These memories use electronic circuit of silicon chip.
 The electronic circuit is called a flip-flop. Circuit can store either 1 or 0.
 It is volatile as it losses its contents as soon as the power is cut off.
 It can store million of bytes on a single chip.

This memory is of two types.

1. RAM (Random Access Memory)
The RAM is volatile in nature because it can store information as long as the power supply is
on if power supply is switched off, it may lose its contents.
It has two types Dynamic and Static RAM.
2. ROM (Read Only Memory)
Information contained on ROM can be read but cannot be changed. The information is stored
permanently during manufacture. The data cannot be erased when computer is switched off.
Types of ROM
 PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)

Secondary Memory: -
 The Secondary memory used for storage of programs, data and other information.
 The secondary storage it stores the information permanently.
 Magnetic memories like hard disk and floppy disk are used as secondary memories.

The secondary storage devices are: -

FLOPPY DISK DRIVE

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A floppy disk is used to store the data and transfer data from one computer to another.
The square-shaped floppy disks are two types
Micro Floppy is of 3.1/2” of 1.44 MB
Macro Floppy is of 5.1/4” of 1.2 MB
HARD DISK DRIVE:
In a hard disk information is stored permanently. It is completely sealed and built inside the
CPU and capacity to store data in a hard disk is more than the floppy or CD-ROM.
CD-ROM:
It is also used to store or transfer data. IT is circular shaped disk, which can store data more
than a floppy but less than HD
HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
Hardware: -
Computer hardware represents all the physical components of a computer system. It includes
input unit, central processing unit and output unit.
Input Unit: -
This unit provides man to machine communication. Input of any form is converted in to
binary electronic signals which can be understood by the CPU. This process is called
digitizing. Input data may be graphical, audio, visual, mechanical etc.
Some of the input units are Keyboard, Mouse, Joystick, Light Pan, Voice Data Entry (VDE),
Magnetic Tapes and Disks etc.
Central Processing Unit: -
The Central processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer system. All the actions
performed by the computer system are initiated, performed and controlled by the CPU. The
CPU works with the binary signals only. Every instruction that is executed first gets stored in
the memory unit, and then it gets processed by the CPU.
Output Unit: -
This unit provides machine to man communication. The output that comes from the CPU is in
the form of binary signals which get converted in to human understandable form, i.e. graphic,
audio, and visual, language form, etc. Some of the popular output devices are Visual Display
Unit (VDU), Printer, Magnetic Disks, and Magnetic Tapes etc.

Software: -
Software means a set of computer programs that are designed and developed to perform
specific task, which supply instructions to a computer.
It is further classified into 2 categories: -
System Software: -
It is a collection of programs designed to operate and control the processing of computer
system. It includes operating and Language Translator.
Operating System: - An operating system is a set of programs used to manage the operations
of the computer system.
Language Translator: -
 Compilers: - Compilers translates a source program that is written in a high level
language in to machine language called object program.
 Interpreters: - It translates each source program statement in to a sequence of
machine instructions and then executes these machine instructions before translating
the next source language statement.

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  Assembler: - An assembler is a program used to convert the program written in
assembly language in to machine language.
Application Software: -
Software that is designed to handle a specific application is called application software.
Example: - Package, Tally, MS-Office etc.
General Purpose Application Package
 Word Processor Package
 Electronic Spread Sheet Package
Specific Purpose Application Package
 Accounting Packages
 Airline or Railway Reservation Package.

OPERATING SYSTEM
The operating system acts as an “INTERFACE” between the user and the computer. An
operating system (OS) is a set of routine programs used to manage the operations of the
computer.
A simple example: -A Policeman who directs traffic at a busy intersection.

Functions of OS: -
 To control input/output operations.
 To control the movement of data in the primary storage.
 To locate and load programs from secondary storage.
 To save files in the secondary storage.

Types of Operating System: -

1. Single User Operating System
2. Multi User Operating System

 Single User OS: - Single user operating system organizes a computer to be operated
by one person at a time. MS-Dos is a single user operating system.
 Multi User OS: - Multi user operating system enables one computer to be share
between several users. UNIX and Windows are the good example of Multi user
operating system.

SYSTEM FILES
Files with system attributes are known as system files. These files contains DOS’s Core
program.
These system files are:
 IO.SYS
 MS DOS.SYS
 COMMAND.COM

IO.SYS & MS DOS.SYS

These files are needed for basic input/output task. Basically these files are hidden files of the
system and stored in the root directory. When they are loaded in the memory, these two
programs take over the running of the system.

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COMMAND.COM
This file acts like command interpreter. DOS expects Command.com file in the root directory
of boot drive.

AUTOEXEC.BAT
It Stands for Auto executable batch file. As the name suggests, it is automatically executed
whenever system start. Various setting like date, time, path, etc., can be batch programmed in
it.
CONFIG.SYS
It is an optional file and one needs to crate it if he/she wants to redefine the working
environment of one’s system. For example, if you want to add a new device to your PC or
your software needs to open more than default, then you have to configure your system for it.
Applications of Computers
Computers in Education: -
Most educational application package and programs are used to increase our reading skill,
thinking and other special skills. Computers are broadly used in following.
 Problem Solving
 Discovery Learning
 Computer Aided Testing

Computer Aided Design & Manufacturing: -

Computers are used in the area of design and manufacturing for the following two main
reasons:
 To increase productivity.
 To reduce costs.

Computer in Research:-
Computer is used to help man in research, in business organization and almost every walk of
life. It makes different designs realistic and easy to analyze.
 Scientific Research
 Language Research
 Weather Research

Computer in Military: -
Computers are extensively useful in military for computerized control.
 Missile Control
 Communication
 Planning

Computers in Marketing: -
Computers are widely used in marketing operations where they create from letter generate
and analyze markets surveys, prepare invoices, produces mail order, and verify status orders.
 Advertising
 At-home shopping
 Telemarketing

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Computer in the art: -
Computer is widely used for creating effective works in painting, music and dance.
 Art
 Dance
 Music

Computers in Communications: -
Computer is most popular in the area of communications. Computers are very effective in
sending and receiving information.
 E-Mail.
 Air Traffic control.
 On line reservation.
 Video Conferencing.
 Electronic Banking Service.

NUMBER SYSTEM
Number System is a way to represent the data using the permitted symbols defined in that
number system.
There are two types of number systems: -

Types of positional number system: -

1. Binary Number System: - This system has only two symbols 0 or 1 so 2 is a base of
counting system.
2. Decimal Number System: - This system has 10 symbols 0 or 9 so 10 is a base of
counting system.
3. Octal Number System: - This system has 8 symbols 0 or 7 so 8 is a base of counting
system.
4. Hexadecimal Number System: - This system has 16 symbols 0 or 9 and capital
letters A, B, C, D, E, and F. the alphabets A to F represent the quantities 10 to 15 so 16
is a base of counting system.

BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

This system has only two symbols 0 or 1 so 2 is a base of counting system. The binary
symbols 0 or 1 are called “Binary Digits” or “Bits”.
Example 111.11 is a binary number and
101.11 =1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 + 1 x 2-1 + 0 x 2-2
=4 + 0 +1 + ½ + ¼
=5.75

NEED OF BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM: -

Binary number system is needed due to the following reasons: -
 Computers are made up of digital electronic circuits. These circuits are essentially
binary in nature i.e. they have to handle 2 states ‘on’ i.e. 1 and ‘off’ i.e. 0.
 All electronic components operate in binary form.
 Floppies, hard disks, taps, CDs etc. store data in bits i.e. binary digits 0 & 1.

15
 Microsoft Word
Microsoft Word
Microsoft Word is a word processor used for creating text based documents such as letters,
faxes, memos etc.
Microsoft word is word processing software which allows you to write, edit them and print
them after formatting it according to your needs. It has all the possible options of a word
processor in the form of font style and size; indents; line spacing; margin; spelling checking
and grammar checking etc.

Basic concept of Microsoft Word

Application Window: The major blank area is the major blank area on the screen is the
called the application window or the editing area, where the user can type and edit text.
Document Window: The whole window except the editing area is called the document
window. It includes the title bar, menu bar, standard toolbar, formatting toolbar and other
toolbars.
Title Bar: The bar on the top of the screen is the title bar that displays the information about
the application one is working on. The title bar also has the buttons for minimizing,
maximizing and closing the application placed at the top of the right corner of the title bar.
Menu Bar: The menu bar has the list of options provided by the software to make
functioning easier and convenient to the user.
Toolbars: The toolbars are nothing but easy shortcuts to various menu commands provided
by the application.
Template: A template is the basic framework for creating a final document. The template
provides the basic style and contents for the document to be created.
Scroll Bar: - Bar that enables the mouse to scroll the screen.
Status Bar: - A bar at the button of the screen show that word is prepared to do next.

16
 Microsoft Excel
Microsoft Excel
This spreadsheet program allows you to manipulate and present your data almost any way
you choose. It allows you to work on a tabular pad consisting of columns and rows where you
can perform all your mathematic, financial and statistical calculations.
MS-Excel is spreadsheet software developed by Microsoft Company. Excel allows you to
create spreadsheet that can perform automatic calculations

Spreadsheet
It is defined as a large sheet containing a matrix of rows and columns it provide the facility to
organize the data into rows and columns.
In worksheets different operation can be performed ie, entering data, moving, copying,
editing, printing data moving rows and columns etc.
Four types of data can be entered in ms-excel-
1. Text: - Text in a cell can include any combination of letters, numbers and special
characters -A cell can contain 32000 characters, but the default width of cell is 10 characters.
2. Numbers: - No. Include digit from 0 to 9 and some special characters like $, %, +, -, ( ),
date and time are stored as numbers it can be 2 forms.
Unformatted- Automatically displayed in scientific notation.
Formatted- Replaced by number signs (#, #, #).
3. Logical Values: - Logical entries, TRUE and FALSE (uppercase only) can be entered in
the cells.
4. Formulas: - A formula in excel is an entry that perform a calculation or other operation. A
formula must begin with an equal sign (=).

There are many advantages of a spreadsheet.

 Tabular storage of data.
 Data can be calculated easily.
 Date formatting and modification can be done easily.
 Data can be validated.
 Data can be stored in either ascending or descending order.

17
  Data can be presented graphically in the form of pie chart, bar chart, line chart etc.

Worksheets and Workbooks

Worksheet: - A worksheet in Excel is the place where you enter data values. A worksheet is
made up of rows and columns. There are a maximum of 256 columns in a worksheet. These
columns are named A, B, C………..Z, AA, AB………IV. There are a maximum of 65536
rows in a worksheet in Excel. Rows are numbered from 1 to 65,536.
Workbook: - The set of worksheets is called workbook. Each excel file has workbook. By
default there are 3 worksheets in a workbook but we can insert more sheets and also delete.

Cells
The intersection of rows and columns is called a cell. Cells can contain text, number or
mathematical formulas. Each cell has cell address.
Cell Address: - The name of columns and number of row is cell the cell address of active
cell.

Microsoft PowerPoint
Definition
Microsoft PowerPoint is an ideal program for making a presentation. It also allows
you to add chart, tables and pictures for making the presentation.
PowerPoint is a complete presentation graphics package. It gives everything one needs to
profile a professional looking presentation. PowerPoint offers word processing, outlining,
drawing graphing and presentation management tools- all designed to be easy to se and learn.

Advantages
 A presentation is easier to understand as highlights the important points.
 A presentation can be built with effective use of text, graphics and charts.
 A presentation can be supplemented with handouts, outlines and speaker notes.

Use of Power Point

PowerPoint use to create electronic slide shows that can liven up even the most
apathetic crowd. It you don’t want to give your presentation electrically, you can create vivid
overhead transparences and valuable audience hangouts that will rival the most polished
presenters. With PowerPoint you can create presentations that run automatically. Automated
presentations are often used as kiosks at trade shows, and such presentations are seeing
increased use on the internet.

Power Point Slide

Each PowerPoint file consists of slides that contain information you desire to present
to your audience. Each slide may have a different layout depending on information types.
Basic Elements: - A slide contain text, pictures, charts, tables, etc.. there are some
elements which make an effective slide. These are: -
Title: - It is a descriptive heading, which identified a slide.
Sub-Title: – It is a brief description of data.
Footnote: – A footnote indicates the source of data.
Border: – It is a frame for the slide.

18
X-axis Title: – A title that displays along the X-axis.
Scale: – Range of number of value that is equal to one unit.
Y-axis Title: – Describing value on Y-axis.
Series: - A set of numerical data.
Series Label: – A label identifying a group of series.

Creating Presentation
Every PowerPoint presentation consists of a serious of slides: text or object displayed
on a graphics background. You create your presentation by adding text and objects to slides.
You will go through a series of steps for every presentation you create in PowerPoint:
1. Create the presentation, entering and editing text, and rearranging slides.
2. Apply a presentation design. Modify the design if necessary.
3. Format individual slides if you wish.
4. Add object to the presentation
5. Apply and modify transitions, animation effects, and links for electronic presentation.
6. Create audience material and speaker notes.
Presentation Views
The presentation in PowerPoint can be displayed in five-views. These are as follows: -
 Slide view: - The current view of your presentation is the slide view. This
view allows you to work in individual slides.
 Outline view: - In this view, your presentation appears like an outline. This
view is helpful when you are in the process of organizing your thoughts.
 Slide sorter view: - Use this view to see a miniature view of each slide in
presentation. Slide sorter view provides an easy way to view the over all affect of
your presentation.
 Notes-Page view: - This view is helpful to create speaker notes. These notes
remind the speaker what to say when the slide appears.
 Slide Show view: - Use the slide show view to display your presentation on screen. It
is important that before you start your presentation in this mode, position on first
slide. So that the presentation starts from the beginning.

19
 Microsoft Access
Microsoft Access:
Microsoft Access is database management software where the information is stored. It
includes tables, queries, forms, reports and other components, all of which allow us to
manipulate and view the database information in a variety of ways.

Steps for Creating Database:

1. Identify the information to be stored.
2. Identify and create tables to hold the information.
3. Define a primary key for each table.
4. Join the tables using a common field.
5. Create forms, if required for data entry.
6. Create queries (Optional) for quickly searching information.
7. Create reports, if required.

Table: -
Table is the most basic components of a database. This is a collection of information stored in
records (rows) and fields (columns). Almost every table has a primary key for the purpose of
identifies the records in the table and helps in creating relationships. This primary key is
defined for joined the common fields among the tables.

Query:
A query is the fastest way to get information from a database. You use queries to view,
change, and analyze data in different ways. You can use them as the source of records for
forms and reports.

Input Masks:
Input mask is a series of special characters that establish the pattern for the field entries. They
save the trouble of entering certain characters like hyphens etc. The input mask is used to
ensure that data is entered in the right format. For Example you use the mask AB00000, the
letters AB will appear on the screen and the user must entered 5 digits.

20
Validation Rule:
Validating rules can be put to specify requirements for data entered in a record or a field.
Primary Key:
Primary key is used to maintain the order of records. They are used to uniquely identify the
records.

HTML
The internet, a network of networks, provides a lot of services related to exchange of
information like World Wide Web. The World Wide Web is fast emerging as the prime
resource for exchange of information across the globe. HTML has been able to make its
contribution.
Hyper Text Markup Language is a method where ordinary text can be converted in to
hypertext. It is a set of special codes included to control the layout and appearance of the text.
Technically, HTML is not a programming language. It combines instructions within data to
tell a display program called browser, how to render the data that the document contains.
 HTML is the character based method for describing and expressing the content. The
content is pictures, text, sound and video clips.
 It delivers the contents to multiple platforms.
 It links document components or documents together to compose compound
documents.

HISTORY OF HTML
Tim Berners-Lee developed HTML in early 1990 at CERN, the European Particle Physics
Laboratory in Geneva, Switzerland. HTML is a public domain and not owned by anybody.
The World Wide Web (www.w3.org) is the body, which control the HTML standards. HTML
was developed by the Tim Berners-Lee and popularized by Mosaic Browser. HTML 2.0
specifications was developed under the protection of the Internet Engineering Task Force to
codify common practice in 1994. HTML 3.0 is much richer version of HTML.
HTML 4.0 extends HTML with mechanisms for style sheets, scripting, frames, embedding
object improved support for right to left and mixed direction text, richer tables and
enhancements to forms.

SIGNIFICANCE OF HTML

21
HTML’s popularity is mainly due to hypertext technology – the technology that enables one
to search for information non-sequentially instead of linearly. Nowadays, with the click of a
mouse one can send and receive e-mails, access huge amount of information and online
submission of forms.
Using HTML one can create page and sites that can be published on the internet. This page
contains tables, images, forms, frames, multimedia and JavaScript and brings pages to life
with dynamic HTML.

HTML TOOLS
HTML has two basic tools: -
 HTML Editor: - It is the program which is used to create and save HTML
documents. E.g. Notepad.
 A Web Browser: -It is the program which is used to view and test the HTML
documents. E.g. Microsoft Internet Explorer.

CREATING LIST
ORDERED LIST: -It is used to indicate sequential form of information. In TYPE
attribute values are 1 (For Arabic numbers), A (For Uppercase Alphabets), a (For Lowercase
Alphabets), I (For Uppercase Roman Numbers), I ((For Lowercase Roman Numbers).
Syntax: -
<OL Type=”1 or A or a or I or i”>
<LI>Any Text</LI>
<LI>Any Text</LI>
</OL>
UNORDERED LIST: -In this type of list numbers are not displayed. Instead of number
Bullets are displayed. In TYPE attribute values are Disc, Circle and Square.
Syntax: -
<UL type=”Disc, Circle, Square”>
<LI>a</LI>
<LI>b</LI>
</UL>
DEFINITION LIST: -The DL (definition list) tag allows you to DT (define the terms)
and DD (define the definitions).
Syntax:-
<DL>
<DT>WORD</DT>
<DD>Definition of the above word</DD>
</DL>
HORIZONTAL ROW TAGS: -
It is used to add a Horizontal Row.
<hr size="10" color="blue" width="80%" align="center">
FONT TAGS: -
It is used to set the font color, size (1 to 7), face.
<Font color=”blue” size=”7” face=”Arial”>
BODY TAGS: -

22
It is used to set the background color, text color and link color etc.
<body bgcolor="aqua" text="red" link=”green” vlink="blue" alink="red">
 BGCOLOR sets the background color.
 TEXT sets the text color.
 LINK sets the color of Hypertext Link.
 VLINK sets the color of visited link.
 ALINK sets the color the activated links.
<BODY background=”Path of Image”>: -It is used to add the Background Image
HYPERLINKS: -
It is used to create link with the specific file.
<A href=”Path of the file”> File Name</A>
<a href="#LOCPG">Link Name</a>
<a name="LOCPG">Linked Name</a>
ADDING IMAGE: -
It is used to add an image or moving pictures in the page.
<IMG SRC or DYNSRC=”path of Image” alt=”Alternative Text” height="200" width="300"
border="5" hspace="10" vspace="10" align=”left”>
TAGS USED FOR FORMATTING TEXT

TAGS DESCRIPTION
<B>, <STRONG> For Bold the Text
<I>,<EM> For Italic the Text
<U> For Underline the Text
<BR> For Break the Line
<P> For writing in a new paragraph
<S>,<DEL>, <STRIKE> For Strikethrough the Text
<SUB> For Subscript
<SUP> For Superscript
<PRE> For displays the text exactly as you type script.
<Address> It is used to write address.
<BLOCKQUOTE> For display the text in paragraph style.
<div style="border=5px solid blue"> For specify the border color for the text.
<span style="background color: pink"> For specify the background color for the text.

ATTRIBUTES USED IN MARQUEE TAGS

Attributes Values Description
Bgcolor Color Name For Background Color of the marquee
Direction Left, Right, Up and Down Specifies the direction of marquee scrolling.
Height Percentage or no. of pixels Specifies the vertical dimension of the marquee
Width Percentage or no. of pixels Specifies the horizontal dimension of marquee
Hspace Percentage or no. of pixels Specifies the left and right margin of marquee
Vspace Percentage or no. of pixels Specify the top and bottom margin of marquee
Loop Any positive number. Controls the number of appearance of marquee.
Scrollamount Number of pixels Specifies the shift of marquee text
Scrolldelay Number in millisecond Specifies how often the marquee text redraws
Behavior Alternate, Scroll or Slide Specifies the marquee motion type

23
 CREATING TABLE
Html table are made up of rows and columns. The table may contain either text or images. Its
tags are as follows: -
<table border=”5” bgcolor=”aqua” bordercolor=”pink” width=”50%” cellspacing=”10”
cellpadding=”10”>

Attributes Values Description

Table Border Any valid no. of pixels For Background Color of the marquee
Bordercolor Any Color Name For Border Color of the Table
Bgcolor Any Color Name For Background Color of the Table
Width Percentage or no. of pixels Specifies the horizontal dimension of the table
Height Percentage or no. of pixels Specifies the vertical dimension of the table
Cellspacing Any valid no. of pixels Specifies the space between the cells.
Cellpadding Any valid no. of pixels Specifies the cells height.
Rowspan Any valid no. of pixels Specify no of rows in which cell will span.
Colspan Any valid no. of pixels Specify no of columns in which cell will span.
FORMS
HTML form is a section of a web document into which the user can enter information. This
information passed back to a web server where it might be recovered in a database for future
use of perhaps used to control what information is returned to the user.
FORMS TAGS: -
It has mainly two attributes auction and method. The syntax is: -
<form action=”URL” method=”get or post”>
INPUT TAGS: -
The input tag defines an input area within a form. It can accept text, radio, checkbox etc as an
attributes.
<input type=”text” name=”text-id” value=”default-text” size=”10” maxlength=”10”
readonly>
PASSWORDS TAGS: -
Password field is exactly similar to text field, except it display ***** (asterisks) instead of
the actual input.
<input type=”password” name=”password-id” value=”default-text” size=”8” maxlength=”8”
readonly>
RADIO BUTTONS TAGS: -
Radio buttons allow the user to choose one of the several options. If one option is selected
then other option will automatically turn off.
<input type=”radio” name=”radio-id” value=”choice-id” checked”>
CHECKBOX TAGS: -
Checkbox offers the user an ‘on’ and ‘off’ switch. It is similar to a radio button, but any
number of checkbox may be switched on.
<input type=”checkbox” name=”box-id” value=”choice-id” checked>
PULL DOWN LIST TAGS: -
Pull down list used <select> instead of <input>. It has option value under the <option> tags.
<select name=”text-id” size=”20” multiple>
<option value=”choice-id” selected>Text Label
</option>
</select>

24
FILES TAGS: -
It is used to upload the file on a web page.
<input type=”file” name=”field-id" size="10" accept="file-type">
TEXTAREA TAGS: -
It sets and area within a form in which the user can type a larger section of text.
<textarea name=”text-id” rows=”2” cols=”20” wrap=”virtual or physical or off readonly”>
SUBMIT TAGS: -
It provides a button that submits the information in the completed form to the URL, given as
the action attribute of the form tag.
<input type=”submit” value=”button label text”>
RESET TAGS: -
The reset value of the type attribute clears all form entries to the default one (or leaves them
blank if no defaults are specified).
<input type=”reset” value=”button label text”>
FIELDSET AND LEGEND TAGS: -
FILEDSET tag creates a box around the matter and legend tag provides a label to the fieldset.
<Fieldset><Legend>Group Label Text</legend>matter </fieldset>
FRAMESET
The frameset element allows defining a multiple frame web page, where each frame displays
its own HTML documents. Frames can be scrolled and resized by the user, unless scrolling
and resizing is turned off.
<frameset rows or cols=”50%, 50 %”>
<frame name="frame name" src="URL" marginheight ="pixel" marginwidth="pixel"
scrolling=”yes, no, auto” noresize>
 Frame Name specify the name of frame like master frame, top frame, bottom frame,
left frame, right frame.
 SRC specifies the frame documents address of URL.
 Margin height and Margin width sets the left, right, top, bottom margin spaces.
 No Resize stops the manually resizing of a frame.
 Scrolling determines how scrollbars are treated in a frame.
Example: -
<FRAMESET ROWS="30%, 70 %">
<FRAME NAME="MAST BAR" SRC="URL OF A FILE" MARGINHEIGHT="3"
MARGINWIDTH="3">
<FRAMESET COLS="50%, 50 %">
<FRAME NAME="LEFT BAR" SRC="URL OF A FILE" MARGINHEIGHT="3"
MARGINWIDTH="3">
<FRAME NAME="RIGHT BAR" SRC="URL OF A FILE" MARGINHEIGHT="3"
MARGINWIDTH="3">
</FRAMESET>

SPACIAL CHARACTERS
Special characters are used to define the special symbols.

Attributes Special Character Output

Less than &lt; A<B
Greater than &gt; A>B

25
Ampersand &amp; A&B
Quotation mark &quot; “A”
Soft hyphen &shy; A-B
Copyright sign &copy; 
Trademark &#8482 
Registered trademark &reg; 

Microsoft Fox Pro

1. Create (File Name):
2. List:
3. List (Filed Name):
4. Append:
5. Edit:
6. Disp Reco (No):
7. Disp All:
8. Dele Reco (No):
9. Recall Reco (No):
10. Pack:
11. Zap:
12. Use:
13. Use (File Name):
14. Dir:
15. Set Clock On:
16. Set Clock Off:
17. Set Status On:
18. Set Status Off:
19. ? Replicate (“RAHUL”, 10): Show the name number of times.
20. ? Max (10,5,18,9):
21. ? Min (10,5,18,9):
22. ? (10+18):
23. ? (18-10):
24. ? (10*5):
25. ? (10/5):
26. ? Sqrt (25):
27. ? ABS (18+9-2*5/2):
28. ? Date ():
29. ? Time ():
30. ? Month (Date ()):
31. ? Year (Date ()):
Create a table.
Show the all records in the table.
Show the particular records in all records.
Add any records in the table.
Edit the records in the table.
Show the particular column records.
Show all the records in the table.
Temporarily deletion for any record.
Recall the temporarily delete record.
Permanently delete the temporarily deleted records.
Delete the file.
Close the table.
Open the existing file.
Show the directory.
Show the clock on the screen.
Hide the clock from the screen.
Show the status bar on the screen.
Hide the status bar from the screen.
Show the maximum records among all.
Show the minimum records among all.
Sum of any two numbers.
Subtraction of any two numbers.
Multiply of any two numbers.
Division of any two numbers.
Sqrtroot of any number.
Find out the absolute value.
Show the current date.
Show the current time.
Show the month in numeric.
Show only current year.

26
32. ? Dow (Date ()): Show the day of weak.
33. ? Upper (“RAHUL”): Show the name in upper case.
34. ? Lower (“RAHUL”): Show the name in lower case.
35. ? Proper (“RAHUL”): Show the name in sentence case.

27
 FoxPro Program
1. Program for calculating the Sum, Area=3.14*R*R
Subtraction, multiplication, Division and @ 4, 4 Say “Area of Circle” Get Area
Square Root of any two numbers.
4. Program for Area and Para of Rectangle
Set talk off
A=0 Set Talk off
B=0 L=0
C=0 W=0
Clear Area=0
@ 2, 4 Say “Enter the Value of A” Get A Para=0
@ 4, 4 Say “Enter the Value of B” Get B Clear
Read @ 2, 4 Say “Enter the Value of Length” Get L
C=A+B @ 4, 4 Say “Enter the Value of Width” Get W
@ 6, 4 Say “Sum of two numbers” Get C Read
C=A-B Area=L*W
@ 8, 4 Say “Sub of two numbers” Get C @ 6, 4 Say “Area of Rectangle” Get Area
C=A*B Para=2*L+2*W
@ 10, 4 Say “Multiple of two numbers” Get C @ 8, 4 Say “Parameter of Rectangle” Para
C=A/B
@ 12, 4 Say “Division of two numbers” Get C 5. Program for Calculating Total Marks
C=Sqrt (A+B) and Average Marks
@ 14, 4 Say “Square Root of two numbers”
Get C Set Talk off
Name=Space (20)
2. Program for Simple and Compound H=0
Interest E=0
S=0
Set Talk off P=0
P=0 U=0
R=0 Total=0
T=0 Average=0
SI=0 Clear
CI=0 @ 2, 4 Say “Enter the Name” Get Name
Clear @ 4, 4 Say “Enter marks obtained in Hindi”
@ 2, 4 Say “Enter the Value of Principal” Get Get H
P @ 6, 4 Say “Enter marks obtained in English”
@ 4, 4 Say “Enter the Value of Rate of Get E
Interest” Get R @ 8, 4 Say “Enter marks obtained in Sanskrit”
@ 6, 4 Say “Enter the Value of Time” Get T Get S
Read @ 10, 4 Say “Enter marks obtained in
Si= (P*R*T)/100 Punjabi” Get P
@ 8, 4 Say “Simple Interest” Get SI @ 12, 4 Say “Enter marks obtained in Hindi”
CI=P*(1+r/100) ^ t-P Get U
@ 10, 4 Say “Compound Interest” Get CI Read
Total=H+E+S+P+U
3. Program for Area of Circle @ 14, 4 Say “Total Marks” Get Total
Average=Total/5
Set Talk off @ 16, 4 Say “Average Marks” Get Average
R=0
Area=0
Clear
@ 2, 4 Say “Enter the Value of Radius” Get R
Read

28
6. Program for Calculating Meter and ?M
Centimeter by Kilometer M=M+5
Enddo
Set Talk off
KM=0 10. Program for find out the maximum
M=0 number from given three numbers.
CM=0 Set talk off
Clear A=0
@ 2, 4 Say “Enter the Length in Kilometer” B=0
Get KM C=0
Read Max=0
M=KM*1000 Clear
@ 4, 4 Say “Total Meter” Get M @ 2, 4 Say “Enter A” Get A
CM=M*100 @ 4, 4 Say “Enter B” Get B
@ 6, 4 Say “Total Centimeter” Get CM @ 6, 4 Say “Enter C” Get C
Read
7. Program for Area of Triangle by Three If A>B
angles Max=A
Else
Set Talk off Max=B
A=0 Endif
B=0 If Max>C
C=0 @ 8, 4 Say “Maximum No is” Get Max
S=0 Else
Area=0 @ 10, 4 Say “Maximum No is” Get C
Clear Endif
@ 2, 4 Say “Enter the Side A” Get A
@ 4, 4 Say “Enter the Side B” Get B 11. Program for Find out the Even Number
@ 6, 4 Say “Enter the Side C” Get C or Odd Number from the giver Number.
Read
S= (A+B+C)/2 Set Talk Off
@ 8, 4 Say “Side S” Get S A=0
Area=(S*(S-A)*(S-B)*(S-C)) Clear
@ 10, 4 Say “Area of Triangle” Get Area @ 2, 4 Say “Enter Any Number” Get A
Read
8. Program for Calculating Area of Square If a%2=0
@ 4, 4 Say “This number is Even” Get A
Set Talk off Else
A=0 @ 6, 4 Say “This number is Odd” Get A
Area=0 Endif
Pare=0
Clear 12. Program for calculating the sum of the
@ 2, 4 Say “Enter the Side A” Get A odd numbers.
Read
Area=A*A Clear
@ 4, 4 Say “Area of Square” Get Area Set Talk off
Para=4*A T=0
@ 6, 4 Say “Para of Square” Get Para X=0
Do While (X<=19)
9. Program for write down the table ?X
T=T+X
Set Talk off X=X+2
M=0 Enddo
Clear ? “Addition of First 10 odd Number= “, T
Do while M<=50 Return

29
 ‘C’ Language
What is Language?
Language is a medium of communication. There are several types of languages like:
1. Low Level Language: - Low level language is used to design system software and
utilities etc.
2. High Level Language: -High level language is used to design the application software
like Business Problems and Scientific problem.
What is C?
C is a programming language developed at AT & T’s Bell Laboratories of USA in 1972. It
was designed and written by a man named Denis Ritchie. The C Compilers combines the
capabilities of an assembly language with the feature of a high-level language and therefore it
is well suited for writing both system software and business package.
There are only 32 keywords and its strength lies its built-in functions.
Constants
Constant in C refer to fixed value that do not change during the execution of a program. This
quantity can be stored at a location in the memory of the computer.
Types of C Constants
C constants can be divided into two major categories:
1. Primary Constants
a) Integer Constants
b) Real Constants
c) Character Constants
2. Secondary Constants
a) Array
b) Pointer
c) Structure
d) Union etc.
Rules for Constructing Integer Constants
a) An integer constant must have at least one digit.
b) It must not have a decimal point.
c) It could be either positive or negative.
d) No commas or blanks are allowed within an integer constant.
e) The allowable range for integer constants is -32768 to +32767.
Rules for Constructing Real Constants
a) An integer constant must have at least one digit.
b) It must have a decimal point.
c) It could be either positive or negative.
d) No commas or blanks are allowed within an integer constant.
Rules for Constructing Character Constants
a) A character constant is a single alphabet, a single digit or a single special symbol
enclosed within single inverted commas; both the inverted commas should point to
the left.
b) The maximum length of a character can be 1 character.

30
Variables
In C a quantity which may vary during program execution is called a variable. Variable
names are given to locations in the memory of computer where different constants are stored.
These locations can store integer, real or character constants.
Rules for Constructing Variable Names
a) A variable name is any combination of 1 to 8 alphabets, digits or underscores. Some
compilers allow variable names whose length could be up to 40 characters, still, it
would be safer to stick to the rule of 8 characters.
b) The first character in the variable name must be an alphabet.
c) No commas or blanks are allowed within a variable name.
d) No special symbol other that an underscore can be used in a variable name.
C Keywords
Every C word is classified as either a keyword or an identifier. All keywords have fixed
meanings and these meaning cannot be changed. Keywords serve basic building blocks for
program statements.
There are 32 Keywords available in C.

auto double if static break else int struct

case enum long switch char extern near typedef
const float register union continue return default for
short void do goto signed while far unsigned

31
/*for simple addition, subtraction, /*programe to simplyfy the equation*/
multiplication and division*/ #include<stdio.h>
#include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h>
#include<conio.h> void main()
void main() {
{ int b,a,c,d;
int a,b,c; clrscr();
clrscr(); printf("enter the value of b,a,and c");
printf("enter the value of a and b"); scanf("%d%d%d",&b,&a,&c);
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b); d=((b*b)-4*a*c);
c=a+b; printf("discriminant=%d",d);
printf("Total=%d",c); getch();
c=a-b; }
printf("Subtraction=%d",c);
c=a*b; /*programe to find out largest number in
printf("Multiplication=%d",c); given three numbers*/
c=a/b; #include<stdio.h>
printf("Division=%d",c); #include<conio.h>
getch(); void main()
} {
int a,b,c;
clrscr();
/*for simple and compound interest*/ printf("enter any three numbers");
#include<stdio.h> scanf("%d%d%d",&a,&b,&c);
#include<conio.h> if(a>b&&a>c)
#include<math.h> printf("a is large number:%d",a);
void main() else
{ if(b>c)
int p,r,t,si,ci; printf("b is large number:%d",b);
clrscr(); else
printf("enter the value of principle,rate of printf("c is large number:%d",c);
interest,number of years"); getch();
scanf("%d%d%d",&p,&r,&t); }
si=(p*r*t)/100;
printf("simple interest=%d",si); /*programe to do print the four digit
ci=p*pow((100+r)/100.0,t)-p; number in the reverse form*/
printf("compound interest=%d",ci); #include<stdio.h>
getch(); #include<conio.h>
} void main()
{
int a,b,c,d,r1,r2,r3,r4;
/*programe to find out area of a triangle*/ clrscr();
#include<stdio.h> printf("enter the value of a four digit
#include<conio.h> number");
void main() scanf("%d",&a);
{ r1=a%10;
int b,h,area; b=a/10;
clrscr(); r2=b%10;
printf("enter the value of breadth and height"); c=b/10;
scanf("%d%d",&b,&h); r3=c%10;
area=(b*h)/2; r4=c/10;
printf("area of triangle is:%d",area); d=r1*1000+r2*100+r3*10+r4*1;
getch(); printf("reverse form=%d",d);
} getch();
}
/*programe to find out the division*/ }
#include<stdio.h> count=count+1;
#include<conio.h> }
void main() }
{
int a,b,c,d,e,av;
clrscr(); /*find the enter number is prime or not*/
printf("enter marks of five subjects"); #include<stdio.h>
scanf("%d%d%d%d%d",&a,&b,&c,&d,&e); #include<conio.h>
av=(a+b+c+d+e)/5; void main()
if(av>=60) {
printf("first division"); int num,i;
else clrscr();
if(av>=50&&av<60) printf("\n enter a numner");
printf("second division"); scanf("%d",&num);
else i=2;
if(av>=35&&av<50) while(i<num)
printf("third division"); {
else if(num%i==0)
printf("fail"); {
getch(); printf("not a prime number");
} break;
}
i++;
}
/*programe to do print the counting*/ if(i==num)
#include<stdio.h> printf("prime number");
#include<conio.h> getch();
void main() }
{
int counting=1;
clrscr(); /*find wheather number is even or odd by
while(counting<=100) using switch case*/
{ #include<stdio.h>
printf("%d\t",counting); #include<conio.h>
counting=counting+1; void main()
} {
} int n,ch;
printf("Enter the number:\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
/*programe to find out the value of even if(n%2==0)
numbers among 1 to 100*/ ch=1;
#include<stdio.h> else
#include<conio.h> ch=2;
void main() switch(ch)
{ {
int count=1,even=0; case 1:
clrscr(); printf("number is even\n");
while(count<=100) break;
{ case 2:
if(count%2==0) printf("number is odd\n");
{ }
printf("%d\t",count); }
even=even+1;
 Tally
Tally is an Accounting Software that helps you in maintaining Accounts and Inventory of
your office.

Accounting
“Accounting is the art of recording, classifying and summarizing in a significant manner and
in terms of money, transactions and events, which are in part, at least, of a financial character,
and interpreting the result thereof” – American Institute of certified public accountants.

Methods of Accounting
There are two types of Accounting Systems.
 American Method or Single Entry System.
 English Method or Double Entry System.

American Method or Single Entry System

It has further five types of accounting.
I. Assets Accounts
II. Liabilities Accounts
III. Capital Accounts or Owner’s Equity A/c
IV. Revenue or Income Accounts
V. Loss or Expenses A/c

Methods of Recording
I. Debit the Increase in the Assets and Credit the Decrease in the Assets.
II. Credit the Increase in the Liabilities and Debit the Decrease in the Liabilities.
III. Credit the Increase in the Capital and Debit the Decrease in the Capital.
IV. Credit the Increase in the Income and Debit the Decrease in the Income.
V. Debit the Increase in the Expenses and Credit the Decrease in the Expenses.

English Method or Double Entry System

Classification of Accounts
1. Personal Accounts: - These accounts are those accounts which are opened by a
name of a person, firm, company, society or organization.
Rules: -“Debit the Receiver and Credit the Giver”.

Types of Personal Accounts: -

I. Natural Personal Accounts:
a) RAHUL’s Accounts
b) Owner’s Capital Accounts
c) Owner’s Drawing Accounts
d) Debtors Accounts
e) Creditors Accounts
II. Artificial Personal Accounts
a) Firm’s Accounts
a) Company’s Accounts
 b) Organization Accounts
c) Bank Accounts
d) Club Accounts
e) Insurance Company Accounts
f) Government Sector accounts
III. Representative Personal Accounts
a) Outstanding Salary Due to Staff account
b) Prepaid Insurance Account
c) Accrued Income Account
d) Unearned Commission Account

2. Real Accounts: -Those Business assets which can be measure in the term of
money; their accounts are called Real Accounts.
Rules: - “Debit what comes in and Credit what goes out”.

Types of Real Accounts: -

I. Tangible Real Accounts: -These accounts are those assets account which can be
touched.
a) Cash Account
b) Stock Account
c) Furniture Account
d) Land Account
e) Building Account
II. Intangible Real Accounts: - Those accounts are those assets account which can’t
touch but can be measured in the term of money.
a) Goodwill Accounts
b) Patents Accounts
c) Trade Mark Accounts
d) Copy Right Accounts

3. Nominal Accounts: -Income and Expenditure accounts of a business are called

nominal accounts.
Rules: - “All the Expenses are debited and Incomes are credited”.

Types of Real Accounts: -

I. Expenditure Accounts: -
a) Salary Paid Accounts
b) Rent Paid Accounts
c) Bed Debts Accounts
d) Commission Paid Accounts
II. Income Accounts: -
a) Salary Received Accounts
b) Rent Received Accounts
c) Commission Received Accounts
d) Interest Received Accounts
e) Bed Debts Recovered Accounts
Steps for working in the Tally
1. Create Company: - In Tally this is the First task or primary task to create a company.
For this Purpose we have to select the Create Company option from menu Gateway of
Tally. After selecting the option we have to fill up the details for the Company like
Company Name, Address, Started Date, and Income Tax No etc.
2. Creates Groups: -Groups are created for same type of Ledger A/cs. In Tally There are
many groups which are used for making ledgers. So in the rare cases we have to
create groups. These are the main groups in the tally.
I. Reserve and Surplus (Retained Earning): -You can use this group heads like
Investment Allowance Reserve, Select Ledger and other such reserve accounts.
II. Current Assets: - This is the primary group that has all the current assets
accounts. It has Six Sub-Groups under it.
a) Bank Accounts: -It is used to hold all accounts of banks.
b) Cash in hand: -It is used to hold ledger account of cash.
c) Deposits: -It is used to hold assets like security deposits, rental deposits and all
other deposits made by the company.
d) Loan and Advances: -It is used to hold all advances and loans of non trading
nature given by the company.
e) Stock in hand: -It is used to hold certain special accounts like raw material,
finished goods and work in progress.
f) Sundry Debtors: -It is used to hold accounts of companies and individuals that
give goods on credit to the company.
III. Current Liabilities: -This is a primary group and is used to hold outstanding and
statuary liabilities of the company. The group has three sub groups under it
which are as follows.
a) Duties and taxes: -It consists all types of taxes and duties like Excise, Local
Sales tax, Central Sales Tax, VAT etc.
b) Provisions: -It is used to hold other tax provisions like Income tax,
depreciation in it.
c) Sundry Creditors: -It is used to hold accounts trade creditors of the company.
IV. Fixed Assets: -This is used to keep accounts of all the fixed assets, patents, trade
tights etc.
V. Investment: -This is used to hold ledger accounts of shares, bonus and other
securities of the company.
VI. Loan Liabilities: -This is used to keep track of loan taken by the company. This
group has three sub groups which are as follows.
a) Bank OD Accounts: -It is used to hold all overdraft accounts with banks.
b) Secured Loans: -It is used to hold long/medium term loans taken by the
company from financial companies and Banks etc.
c) Unsecured Loans: -It is used to hold the loans taken unconditionally by the
company.
VII. Suspense Accounts: -This is used by many companies to maintain a suspense
ledger which keeps track of money received or paid by the companies, whose
nature of transaction is not yet known.
VIII. Miscellaneous Expenses: -The loss of the company, which has not been written
off but carried forward to the next year, should fall here. However, tally treats it
as a negative profit and carries it to the profit and loss account.
IX. Branches/Division: -This is used to keep the names of all companies which may
be branches, divisions of the company.
 X. Sales Account: -It is used to all goods sales accounts of the companies.
XI. Purchase Account: -It is used to all goods purchase accounts of the companies.
XII. Direct Income: -It is used to hold ledger accounts of non-trade income accounts
that affect gross profit.
XIII. Indirect Income: -This is used to hold ledger accounts of those expenses of the
company that determine its gross profit. For example interest received and
commission received.
XIV. Direct Expenses: -This is used to hold ledger accounts of those expenses of the
company which determine its gross profit. Expenses like salary paid to labour,
transportation, electricity bills etc.
XV. Indirect Expenses:-This is used to hold ledger account of those expenses of the
company, which determine its net profit. Expenses like advertising, maintenance
of vehicles, administrative expenses etc.

3. Create Ledgers: -Ledgers are actual account heads to which the transactions are
identified. You Make all voucher entries in these accounts. You have to classify all
ledgers in to groups.

4. Voucher Entries: -For Making the Voucher Entries first of all we have to set the
voucher date by pressing F2 then enter the voucher date. There are various types of
vouchers in tally.
Voucher Entries are describes as follows: -
I. Contra Voucher: -This type of voucher is used for Cash to Bank, Bank to Cash and
Bank to Bank Entries. Press F4 to select the voucher type.
II. Payment Voucher: -This type of voucher is used for the Cash Payment Entries.
Press F5 to select the voucher type.
III. Receipts Voucher: - This type of voucher is used for the Cash Receipts Entries.
Press F6 to select the voucher type.
IV. Journal: - This is used for the Journal Entries like debit of credit Entries. Press F7
to select the voucher type.
V. Sales Voucher: -This is used for the Goods Sales Entries. Press F8 to select the
voucher type.
VI. Purchase Voucher: -This is used for Goods Purchase Entries. Press F9 to select the
voucher type.
VII. Memo: -This is used to create Memorandum or Reverse Journal Voucher. Press
F10 to select the voucher type.

5. Display Reports: -There are several types of reports are generated by the tally like
Trading and Profit and Loss Account, Balance Sheet, Inventory Reporting Ratio
Analysis etc.
 TRADING ACCOUNT

Figure for the current year

yearFigure for the previous

yearFigure for the previous

Figure for the current year

Expenditure Income

Rs Particulars Rs. Rs. Particulars Rs.

To Opening Stock: By Sales:
I. Raw Materials Less: Sales Returns
II. Work-in-Progress By Closing Stock:
III. Finished Goods I. Raw Materials
To Purchases II. Work-in-Progress
Less: Purchases Returns III. Finished Goods
To Manufacturing Exp.
(Direct Exp.)
I. Wages
II. Wages and Salaries
III. Direct charges
IV. Carriage inwards
V. Gas fuel and power
VI. Freight, Octroi,
Cartage
VII. Royalty
VIII. Excise Duty
IX. Custom or Import
Duty
X. Factory Rent and
Lighting

Rs. To Gross Profit (If Any) Rs. Rs. By Gross Loss (If Any) transferred to Rs.
transferred to P/L Account P/L Account (Bal. Figures)
(Bal. Figures)
Rs To Gross Loss (If Any) B/D Rs. Rs. By Gross Profit (If Any) B/D Rs.
 Profit and Loss Account

Figure for the current year

yearFigure for the previous

yearFigure for the previous

Figure for the current year

Expenditure Income

Rs Particulars Rs. Rs. Particulars Rs.

To Employee Remuneration: By Gross Profit (If Any) B/D
I. Salaries, Bonus etc. By Rent From Tenant
II. Contribution of By Discount Received
provident fund, By Income From Investment
Pension fund etc. By Profit on role of investments
III. Staff Welfare exp. By Interest received
To Selling and Distribution By Commission Received
exp: By Dividend Of Shares
I. Advertising, Godown, By Apprentice Premium
Rent etc. By Profit on sale of Assets
II. Commission, By Miscellaneous Receipts
Brokerage and By Income From other sources
discount Allowed.
To Office Exp.
I. Rent, Rates and Taxes
II. Salaries, Salaries and
Wages
III. Insurance Premium
IV. Printing, Postage &
Stationery
V. Repair and lightning.
VI. Unproductive wages.
VII. Audit fees and legal
charges.
VIII. Telephone Exp.
IX. Trade Exp.
X. Establishment Exp.
XI. General Exp.
To selling and distribution
Exp.
I. Carriage outward.
II. Commission.
III. Export duty.
IV. Parking charges.
V. Bad debts.
VI. Sales tax.
VII. Miscellaneous Exp.
Rs. To Net Profit (If Any) Rs. Rs. By Net Loss (If Any) transferred to Rs.
transferred to Capital Account Capital Account (Bal. Figures)
(Bal. Figures)

Balance Sheet of RN Pvt. Ltd.

As on 31st march 2007

Figure for the current year

yearFigure for the previous

yearFigure for the previous

Figure for the current year

Liabilities Assets

Rs Particulars Rs. Rs. Particulars Rs.

1. Share Capital: 1. Fixed Assets:
Authorized and Subscribed I. Goodwill
shares. II. Land
2. Reserve and Surplus: III. Building
I. Capital Reserve IV. Leaseholds
II. Share Premium V. Plant and Machinery
III. Other Reserves VI. Furniture and Fittings
Less: Debit Balance of P/L VII. Patents, Trade Mark and Copy
Appropriation A/c (If Any) Right
IV. Surplus i.e Credit Bal. VIII. Vehicles
of P/L A/c (After Providing 2. Investment:
the Proposed Dividend, I. Govt. or Trust Securities
Bonus or Reserves) II. Share, Debentures and bonds
V. Sinking Fund III. Investment and Immovable
3. Secured Loans: Properties
I. Debentures 3. Current Assets, Loans and
II. Loan and Advances Advances:
4. Unsecured Loans: I. Interest Accrued on
I. Fixed Deposit Investment
II. Short term Loan and II. Stores and spare parts
Advances III. Loose Tools
5. Current Liabilities and IV. Stock-in-Trade
Provisions: V. Work in Progress
I. Acceptance (B/P) VI. Sundry Debtors
II. Sundry Creditors Less: Cash or Bank Balance
III. Unclaimed Dividends VII. Bills of Exchanges
IV. Interest Accrued but 4. Miscellaneous Expenditure
not due on loans I. Preliminary Expenses
V. Provision for Taxation II. Discount Allowed on the
VI. Proposed Dividends share or debenture
VII. Provision for III. Development Expenses not
Insurance adjusted.
VIII. Other provisions 5. Profit And Loss Account
IX. Contingent Liabilities Debit Balance of P/L Account (If
 like Claim against company Any). (This is shown only when its
not acknowledged or debts debit balance could not be written off
out of other reserves)

Rs. Total Amount Rs. Rs. Total Amount Rs.

Computer Abbreviations
1. ALU Arithmetic and Logic Unit
2. ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange
3. BCD Binary Coded Decimal
4. BIOS Basic Input Output System
5. CAD Computer Aided Design
6. CAM Computer Aided Manufacturing
7. CD Compact Disk
8. CD-ROM Compact Disk – Read Only Memory
9. CGA Color Graphic Adapter
10. COBOL Common Business Oriented Language
11. CPU Central Processing Unit
12. CVT Constant Voltage Transformer
13. DBMS Data Base Management System
14. DOS Disk Operating System
15. DVD Digital Versatile Disk, Digital Video Disk
16. DTPS Desk Top Publishing System
17. EEPROM Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
18. FAT File Animation Tool or Trunk
19. FIFO First In First Out
20. FDD Floppy Disk Drive
21. GB Giga Byte
22. GIF Graphic Underhand Format
23. GIGO Garbage In Garbage Out
24. GUI Graphical User Interface
25. HDD Hard Disk Drive
26. IBM International Business Machine
27. IC Integrated Circuits
28. IDE Integrated Device Electronics
29. IT Information Technology
30. INTERNET International Network
31. JPEG Joint Photographic Experts Group
32. KB Kilo Byte
33. LAN Local Area Network
34. LIFO Last In First Out
35. MAN Metropolitan Area Network
36. MG Mega Byte
37. MS-DOS Micro Soft – Disk Operating System
38. NTFS New Technology File System
39. OCR Optical Character Reader
40. OMR Optical Mark Recognition
41. OS Operating System
42. PASCAL A Programming Language
43. PROM Programmable Read Only Memory
44. RAM Random Access Memory
45. ROM Read Only Memory
46. SQL Structural Query Language
47. UNIX A Multi-user Time Sharing System
48. VDU Visual Display Unit
49. VGA Visual Graphic Adaptor
50. WAN Wide Area Network