Characteristics in the Fourth Dimension

Angela C. Wood NSF Scholar 2002-2003 Virginia Commonwealth University Submitted: August 2004

Characteristics in the Fourth Dimensions Abstract

This paper examines the basic characteristics of the fourth dimension, its history, as well as characteristics of four-dimensional figures. Using properties of figures in one, two and three dimensions we are able to determine the properties of four-dimensional figures. Using simple figures, such as circles and squares makes the fourth dimension more tangible for those students who have never been exposed to it.

What is the fourth dimension?

Some believe that the fourth dimension represents time and others believe that it represents a direction. Let us focus on the idea that the fourth dimension is a direction perpendicular to all directions in normal space, as it is easiest to visualize. Examining patterns helps to understand this phenomenon. For example, an object in the first dimension consists of only one of the fundamental units, such as a line having only length. An object in the second dimension consists of two of the fundamental units, such as a square having length and width. It follows that an object in the third dimensions consists of three of the fundamental units, such as a cube having length, width and height. Although difficult to imagine, an object in the fourth dimension consists of four units, length, width, height and the unknown unit projecting in the fourth dimension. To help visualize this unknown unit, look at the corner of a room. Notice all of the intersecting lines and imagine a fourth intersecting line perpendicular to the other three.

This is a difficult concept to grasp. It also helps to imagine creatures living in zero, one and two dimensions. If a bird were trapped at one particular point in space, it could not move in any direction. Therefore is has zero degrees of freedom. If a bird were trapped in a small tube just wide enough for it to travel backwards and forwards it has one degree of freedom. If a bird were trapped on a two dimensional plane and was unable to fly, it would posses two degrees of freedom; meaning it could only travel backwards, forwards, left and right. Obviously a bird trapped in a three dimensional space could travel in what we think of as our world. Now imagine that the bird is only capable of seeing forward. Would the bird trapped in zero dimensions be able to see what was behind it? Would the bird trapped in the tube be able to see what was to the left and right of it? Would the bird trapped in the two-dimensional plane be-able to see what was above and below it? The answer to the following questions is no. See diagrams below:

Zero df

One df

Two df

Three df

Therefore, trapped in a three-dimensional world, we are unable to see in this unknown fourth dimension perpendicular to all of the other directions. [10] Edwin A. Abbot wrote a book entitled Flatland in 1884 that describes the phenomenon just discussed. Flatland consists of a world of two-dimensional creatures. The towns people are triangles, squares, pentagons, etcand as the number of sides increased the higher the social status of the people in society. The circle represented the most prestigious being of all. In Flatland, the people can only see lines and points; they cannot see height. The following diagram gives Flatland from our perspective as well as from theirs.

View from above.

View from Flatland.

The society lived peacefully until one day a creature from Space-land visited. This creatures size varied continuously as it moved. The creature turned out to be a sphere. Imagine a sphere passing through a two-dimensional surface (see the second diagram in the section on hyperspheres for a better idea). This is another demonstration of how a creature living in two-dimensions would not fully see a creature in three-dimensions. This pattern continues into the higher dimensions. [1] With these patterns in mind, it is interesting to investigate the different shapes and the patterns among these shapes as we pass from one dimension to the next. Eulers formula is particularly interesting to investigate as it was originally only used in the third dimension. In addition, the two most common four-dimensional shapes are the hypercube and hypersphere. Patterns from the first, second and third dimensions lead us to conclusions about the fourth dimension and beyond.

History of the fourth dimension

The fourth dimension is a phenomenon that dates back to as early as the 1800s. Euclids mathematical theories were limited to just the third dimension. The thought of a fourth dimension intrigued a German man by the name of Georg Bernard Riemann. Riemann visualized the fourth dimension and believed it would help with the unification of all physical laws [9]. Riemann made this phenomenon well known through his lecture entitled On the Hypotheses which lie at the Bases of Geometry. (Note: the entire lecture was originally in German.) In this lecture he constantly refers to a multiply extended magnitude;

in other words, n-dimensions. In his lecture, he also discusses the idea of using patterns to move from one dimension to the next. He states, Measure consists in the superposition of the magnitudes to be compared; it therefore requires a means of using one magnitude as the standard for another.[12] After this lecture, the fourth dimension soon appeared in art, literature and was a key aspect in the cubist revolution [9]. Riemanns lecture stirred up society and lead to much more discussion and investigation regarding the fourth dimension and beyond. In the early 1900s Albert Einstein tinkered with the idea of the fourth dimension but did not put it in writing. When he stumbled across Riemanns lecture, he found a way to put it to use. Using the fourth dimension Einstein simplified his equations for gravity and was able to come up with an exact formulation of the General Principle of Relativity. In his theory of relativity, he refers to a four-dimensional space-time continuum [4] using time as the fourth dimension. Albert Einsteins Relativity: The Special and General Theory states, we must regard x1, x2, x3 as space co-ordinates and x4 as a time co-ordinate. [4] Straying from Euclidean geometry increased the preciseness of Einsteins theory. Today the fourth dimension is used daily in calculations to explain our universe, however it is not tangible, no one has seen it or felt it (except in dreams), and there are varying opinions as to whether it represents time or a direction perpendicular to all directions in normal space (tangible directions).

Beyond Eulers formula

It is fair to say that four-dimensional figures and their properties are derived from their two and three-dimensional counterparts. Around 1750 Euler discovered a formula for platonic solids or regular three-dimensional figures: Vertices Edges + Faces = 2. During his time, Euler was unable to correctly prove that his formula was true. It was not proven until 1794 by Legendre [7]. From that point forward, this formula was used as a basis for other mathematicians and other formulas. By tweaking Eulers formula, it is easy to see a pattern from dimension to dimension. In two-dimensions, for instance, the formula changes to Vertices Edges = 0. For future reference V vertices, Eedges, F-faces and C-cells. Vertices, edges and faces are common to our three dimensional figures. Four-dimensional figures and higher contain threedimensional units which are called cells. See table below for two-dimensional examples: Regular Polygons Triangle Square Pentagon 3 4 5 3 4 5 0 0 0 V E V-E

This table could continue to include hexagons, heptagons, octagons, etc. The results would be the same. Notice that in two dimensions there are only two variables, vertices and edges; because in two dimensions the number of faces on a regular polygon is one. In three dimensions as stated previously, the formula is V E + F = 2. See the table below for examples [2].

Regular 3D Figures V Cube Tetrahedron Octahedron Dodecahedron Icosahedron 8 4 6 20 12

E 12 6 12 30 30

F 6 4 8 12 20

V-E+F 2 2 2 2 2

Notice in three dimensions there are now three variables of importance: vertices, edges and faces. In four dimensions the formula is V E + F C = 0. See the table below [3]: Regular 4D Figures Hypercube 16-Hedroid 24-Hedroid 16 8 24 32 24 96 24 32 96 8 16 24 0 0 0 V E F C V-E+F-C

Notice in four dimensions, cells are added to the list of variables. There are six regular 4D figures that follow the formula in the table above. As the dimension increases by one, the number of variables of importance also increases by one. Also, notice that in even dimensions the formulas give a result of zero and in odd dimensions the formulas give a result of 2. A Swiss man by the name of Ludwig Schlfli was the first to generalize the pattern observed above and Jules Henri Poincar was the first to prove it. Let A1, A2, A3, and A4 represent vertices, edges, faces and cells respectively. The table below summarizes the patterns previously observed [15]. 8

1D 2D 3D 4D

A1 = 2 A1 A2 = 0 A1 A2 + A3 = 2 A1 A2 + A3 A4 = 0

Notice that the odd dimensions end in addition and the even dimensions end in subtraction. Also, notice that the subscript of the last A corresponds to the dimension. Therefore, the formula for N-dimensions is as follows: ND: A1 A2 + A3 + (-1)n 1 *An or 1- (-1)n [15]

Determines addition or subtraction. Commonly used in sequences and/or series.

Corresponds to the n-dimension. Note: as dimension increases by one so does the number of variables

With this formula, it is easy to project the Euler Characteristic for any dimension. Eulers formula is also commonly used today in graph theory.

Characteristics of the hypercube

Let us begin with a basic two-dimensional shape: a square. A twodimensional square has a length and a width. These dimensions are perpendicular to each other (i.e. x-axis and y-axis). When extended into the third dimension, the square becomes a cube with a length, width and height. Again, these dimensions are all perpendicular to each other (i.e. x-axis, y-axis and zaxis). When a cube is extended into the fourth dimension, it translates along a path perpendicular to the three existing dimensions. A hypercube (otherwise known as a tesseract) contains eight cubes. According to Clifford A. Pickover,

For a tesseract, the eight cubes are: the large cube, the small interior cube and six hexahedrons (distorted cubes) surrounding the small interior cube. [11] It may be easier to imagine the net of a hypercube, as compared to the net of a cube.

Cube

Hypercube
Note: You can only fold the net of hypercube in the fourth dimension.

It is easy to visualize how the net of a cube folds into a cube; however, it is difficult to visualize the net of a hypercube folding into a hypercube. The reason for this is that in the fourth dimension objects can pass through surfaces without breaking the surface. Therefore, you must imagine that the net of the hypercube is being folded in the fourth dimension. See the color-coded diagrams below to help visualize how the net of a hypercube would be folded in the fourth dimension. The colors and diagrams correspond to each other. Again, keep in mind that you can only fold this into a hypercube in the fourth dimension.

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[13]

Moreover, a cube contains 8 vertices, 12 edges and 6 planes. When translated into the fourth dimension it contains 8 additional vertices, 12 additional edges as well as 8 edges created by connecting the vertices of the two cubes respectively. In addition, it contains 6 additional planes, as well as 12 new planes traced by the 12 line segments. This gives us a total of 16 vertices, 32 edges and 24 planes [8]. Furthermore, according to Henry Manning: the new figure will have a cube at the beginning of the movement and another cube at the end, and in addition each of the six squares bounding the original cube will by their movement trace a new cube, thus adding six new cubes to the two already mentioned, or eight cubes in all[8]

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Compare the two-dimensional sketches below. Hypercube

Cube

Note: Be sure to take a good look! Cubes are transcending in all different directions.

These sketches represent a cube and a hypercube being projected onto a twodimensional plane. In additions, the shadow of a three dimensional figure is two dimensional, therefore the shadow of a four dimensional figure is threedimensional. The picture below is of a three-dimensional figure that represents the shadow of a hypercube at a particular moment in time.

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Through understanding of the basic concepts that lead to the hypercube, deriving the volume formula is very simple. Given the commonly used perimeter, area and volume formulas for squares and cubes, it is very easy to see a pattern that extends into the fourth dimension. The table below gives us information regarding two, three and four dimensional squares, cubes and hyper-cubes respectively. Square Perimeter Area Volume/Hypersurface area Hyper-volume * s represents the length of a side Patterns exist down the diagonals of the table. The hyper-surface area of a hypercube is 8s3. A formula can be derived to find the perimeter, surface area and hyper-surface area etc That is 2n(s)n-1 where n represents dimension. It follows that in the 5th dimension the hyper-hyper surface area of a hyper-hyper cube would be HHV=10s4. A formula can also be derived to find the area, volume, hyper-volume etc. That formula is sn, again where n represents dimension [11]. Keep in mind, however, that the hyper-cube in the fourth dimension collapses onto itself, and therefore the surface area and volume formulas following from the previous dimensions, depend on the shape of the figure at a particular moment in time. These patterns from dimension to dimension lead us to shapes that are more complicated. HV=s4 P= 4s A = s2 SA = 6s2 V=s3 HSA=8s3 Cube Hypercube

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Characteristics of the Hypersphere

Hyperspheres are more difficult to imagine than hypercubes. It is easiest to picture a hypersphere by again looking at the patterns. First, imagine the cross sections of a hollow circle passing through a line [7].

Notice that you would first see a point, then two points gradually getting further apart, then gradually getting closer together until they coincide back into one point. Now imagine a three dimensional sphere passing through a plane [7].

Note: The gray line in this diagram represents a plane in 3-space.

Notice that the cross sections of a sphere consist of different size circles. The outer circles are solid and the inner circles are hollow [7]. In conclusion the two dimensional circle is broken into one-dimensional points and the three dimensional sphere is broken into two-dimensional circles. Therefore it is apparent that a four dimensional hypersphere, when passing through a three dimensional surface, will yield three-dimensional spheres of varying sizes. Some of which will be solid and some of which will be hollow.

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Another pattern to examine is the number of points it takes to create a circle, sphere and hypersphere. It takes 3 non-collinear points to create a circle, 4 noncoplanar points to create a sphere, and therefore 5 points not in the same space to create a hypersphere [6]. Algebraically it is easy to determine the equation for a hypersphere. The algebraic equation for a circle in two dimensions is (x-h)2+(y-k)2=r2, where (h, k) represents the center point and r represents the radius. The equation for a sphere in three dimensions is (x-h)2+(y-k)2+(z-l)2=r2, where (h, k, l) represents the center point and r represents the radius. Therefore in four dimensions it is easy to see that the algebraic equation for a hypersphere is (x-h)2+(y-k)2+(z-l)2+(wm)2=r2 where (h, k, l, m) represents the hyper-center and r represents the hyperradius. The hypervolume formula for a hypersphere can also be determined by examining the area of a circle and the volume of a sphere. The area formula for a circle is often used and is A= r2. The volume formula for a sphere is V= From looking at these two formulas, it is difficult to determine a pattern that extends into the fourth dimension. It is helpful to look at the derivation of the area and volume formulas in order to extend a formula into the fourth dimension. The following derivations assume that the center of all of the circles, spheres and hyperspheres is at the origin; therefore, we can eliminate the variables h, k, l and m.

4 3 r . 3

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Area of a Circle Derivation: x2 + y2 = r 2 y = r 2 x2

r

Equation of a circle Solve for y Twice the area from r to r Let x = r sin
2

A=2

r x dx
2
1 2

A = 2 (r 2 r 2 sin 2 ) r cos d
2

dx = r cos d x = r x=r

= =

2 2

A = 2 r (1 sin ) cos d
2 2 2

1 2

Trigonometric Identity

A = 2r 2 cos 2 d
2

sin 2 + cos 2 = 1

1 1 2 A = 2r + sin 2 4 2
2 2

Table of Integrals [14]

1 1 1 1 A = 2r 2 + sin + sin( ) 2 2 4 2 2 4 A = 2r 2 4 4 A= 2r 2 = r 2 2

Substitution

Simplify Two Dimensional Circle Area Formula

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Using this same method we can find the formula for the volume of a sphere [2].

x2 + y2 + z2 = r 2 x2 + y2 = r 2 z 2
Therefore the radius of the 2D equation = r 2 z 2 A = (r 2 z 2 )

Equation of a sphere

Using formula derived for the area of a circle. Let:

V = (r 2 z 2 ) dz
2

z = r sin z = r z=r

dz = r cos d

= =

Substitution

V = r (r 2 r 2 sin 2 ) cos d
2

Distributive Property

V = r 3 (1 sin 2 ) cos d
2

V = r 3

cos

Trigonometric Identity

1 2 V = r 2 + cos 2 sin 3
3 2

Table of Integrals [14]

1 1 V = r 3 2 + cos 2 sin 2 + cos 2 sin 2 2 3 2 2 3 1 1 V = r 3 (2 + 0 )(1) (2 + 0 )( 1) 3 3 4 V = r3 3

Simplify

Three Dimensional Volume of a Sphere Formula

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Therefore, using the above formulas the hyper-volume of a hyper-sphere can be derived in the same manner [2].

w2 + x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2 w2 + x 2 + y 2 = r 2 z 2
Therefore the radius of the 3D equation = r 2 z 2 3 4 V = r2 z2 3 r 3 4 HV = r 2 z 2 2 dz 3 r

Equation of a Hypersphere

Using the formula for the volume of a sphere. Let:

z = r sin z = r z=r

dz = r cos d

= =

4 HV = 3

Substitution
2

(r

r 2 sin 2 ) 2 r cos d
3

4 HV = r 3 1 sin 2 3

2 2

Distributive Property

r cos d
Pythagorean Identity

4 HV = r 4 3 4 HV = r 4 3 4 HV = r 4 3 4 HV = r 4 3

(cos )
2 4

cos d
Simplify

2 2

cos

d
Table of Integrals [14]

2 2

3 1 3 2 4 cos sin + 4 cos d 1 3 4 cos sin + 31 1 + sin 2 42 4

Table of Integrals [14]

2 2

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 1 3 1 1 3 sin + + sin 2 cos 2 2 2 2 4 4 2 4 4 4 HV = r 3 1 cos 3 sin + 3 1 + 1 sin 2 4 2 2 42 2 4 2 4 3 3 HV = r 4 3 16 16 2r 4 HV = 2

Simplify Four dimensional hypervolume of a hypersphere

In looking at the patterns moving from the second dimension to the fourth dimension, a formula can be derived: V =

2r n

(n 2 ) !

[10] where r represents the

radius and n represents an even dimension. The formula for figures in odd dimensions gets tricky as we have only derived the formula for the third dimension and are at this point unable to determine a pattern. Keep in mind that figures in the fourth dimension are constantly on the move and therefore the mathematical formulas only hold true for one particular moment in time. With that in mind, we could potentially find the volume of a figure in 10-D, 100-D, 1000-D, 10000-D etcbut notice that as n increases to such large values the

Volume gets decreasingly smaller. The reason for this is: lim
n

2rn

(n 2 ) ! = 0. This

shows that as the dimensions gradually increase, the volume first increases, then reaches a maximum and gradually decreases to a horizontal asymptote of zero. A hypersphere consists of an infinite number of spheres able to move around each other, over each other and pass through each other. Hyperspheres

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are more difficult to imagine than hypercubes, however they are very interesting figures.

Summary
In conclusion, the patterns that exist from one dimension to the next make the study of higher dimensions very intriguing. Euler just saw a pattern in common three-dimensional shapes that eventually turned into a multi-dimensional phenomenon. Hypercubes and hyperspheres, although difficult to visualize, follow the same logic as squares and circles, and as cubes and spheres. These multi-dimensional figures and ideas have been seen in cubist paintings, used in literature, and have assisted in proving mathematical theories. The fourth dimension and beyond has greatly affected our society.

Acknowledgment
The funding for this project was provided by the National Science Foundation. Special thanks to my advisor, Dr. Aimee Ellington, for all of her support through the entire process. In addition, thank you to my committee members, Dr. Rueben Farley and Dr. William Haver.

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References
[1] Abbott, Edwin A. (1884) Flatland: A romance of many dimensions. (Aloysius West, transcribed) Erik Max Francis. Internet: http://www.alcyone.com/max/lit/flatland. [2] Baragar, Arthur. (2000). A Survey of Classical and Modern Geometries with Computer Activities. Prentice Hall [3] Coxeter, H.S.M. (1969) Introduction to Geometry. (2nd ed.) New York: John Wiley and Sons [4] Einstein, Albert (1920). The Space-Time Continuum of the General Theory of Relativity is not a Euclidean Continuum. In Relativity: The Special and General Theory. New York: Henry Holt, Bartleby.com2000. Internet: www.bartleby.com/1731 [5] Eppestein, David, Seventeen Proofs of Eulers Formula: V-E+F=2, Internet:http://www.ics.uci.edu/~eppstein/junkyard/euler. [6] Fitch, Graham Denby. (1960) An Elucidation of the Fourth Dimension. In Henry P. Manning, The Fourth Dimension: Simply Explained. (pp.43 -51). New York: Dover Publications, Inc. [7] Fuquay, Jeff. The Hypersphere, Internet: http://www.geocities.com/jsfhome/Think4d/Hyprsphr/hsphere.html. [8] Gunnel, Leonard C. (1960). Length, Breadth, Thickness, and Then What?. In Henry P. Manning, The Fourth Dimension: Simply Explained. (pp. 110 117). New York: Dover Publications Inc.

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[9]

Lesperance, Ian. The Fourth Dimension. Internet: http://www.elliterate.com/archives/elliterate03/fourthdimension.htm

[10]

Manning, H. P. (1928). Geometry of Four Dimensions. New York: The MacMillan Company.

[11]

Pickover, Clifford A. Surfing Through Hyperspace: Understanding Higher Universes in Six Easy Lessons. New York: Oxford University Press.

[12]

Riemann, Bernhard. (1867). On the Hypotheses Which Lie at the Bases of Geometry. (W.K. Clifford, Tran.). Internet: http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/People/Riemann/Geom/WKCGeom. html

[13]

Rucker, Rudy. (1984) The Fourth Dimension: A Guided Tour of the Higher Universes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company

[14]

Stewart, James (2001). Calculus: Concepts and Contexts. (2nd ed.). California: Brooks/ Cole.

[15]

Weisstein, Eric W. Polyhedral Formula. From Math WorldA Wolfram Web Resource. Internet: http://mathworld.wolfram.com/PolyhedraFormula.html.

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