Guidelines for Reporting Statistical Results

These guidelines are designed to help researchers evaluate the propriety of the statistical methodology used and the validity and applicability of their findings. Guidelines are provided for statistical results in general, with specific guidelines for some common statistical measures. Similar guidelines apply to measures not listed here. 1.9 If more than one type of test was performed (eg, F tests and t tests), the following information should be provided in parentheses after each result: the name of the test, the degrees of freedom, and the P value. 1.10 Any unusual observations should be described in detail. Outliers in any analysis cannot simply be thrown away to improve fit or allow for assumptions to be met. There must be a reason to delete observations (eg, data entry error). 1.11 Tables and/or graphs should be clearly labeled. Deciding whether to present data in a graph or table can be difficult. Generally, graphs are better for showing patterns, while tables are better for accurately presenting numbers.

SECTION 1: MANUSCRIPTS THAT INVOLVE STATISTICAL DATA

1.1 We repeat the oft-given but seldom-followed advice: Talk to a biostatistician before collecting any data. Many problems can be solved easily in the planning stage but become insurmountable in the data analysis stage. These include (but are not limited to) issues of sample size and experimental design. 1.2 The research objective or hypothesis should be clearly stated in the form of a null hypothesis so that the objective can be tested statistically to determine whether differences are significant or a matter of chance. 1.3 If random assignment or random selection is claimed, the method used to provide randomness should be indicated. Post-randomization tests of equality are recommended. 1.4 When multiple statistical tests are conducted, the risk of one or more Type I errors (ie, the risk of saying that there is a difference when no difference exists) is inflated. The author should recognize this danger and take measures to address it. 1.5 Any data transformations should be described and justified. Data transformations also require additional interpretation of results after statistical testing. Exceptions include standard transformations (eg, log dose for drugs) and linear transformations (eg, inches to centimeters) that do not change the shape of the distribution. 1.6 References should be provided when nonstandard statistical methods are used. (This is not necessary for commonly used measures such as the Pearson correlation, t test, analysis of variance, and chi-square test.) 1.7 Results should be presented in the same order in which statistical testing was described. Actual values must be provided. Significant findings and trends should be described, and results deemed significant or nonsignificant should be validated with specific data from the statistical test(s) employed. 1.8 Journal readers have a wide spectrum of statistical knowledge. In order to keep as many readers interested for as long as possible, descriptive results should be given before inferential tests, and individual data should be given before group data.
MONTH 2002

SECTION 2: ANALYSIS OF FREQUENCY COUNTS USING CHI-SQUARE

2.1 The report of a chi-square analysis must include the data table, the value of the chi-square statistic, the degrees of freedom, and the P value. 2.2 Each sampling unit should be counted only once in a given contingency table. 2.3 Categories should not overlap but should account for the whole sample. 2.4 In general, when estimates of the chi-square statistic are made, expected frequency of each cell (or category) should be 5 or more. Exceptions should be justified after consultation with a biostatistician. 2.5 If categories are collapsed to avoid small expected frequencies, the merged categories should be meaningful (eg, adjacent age-ranges could be merged, but edentulous patients should not be merged with patients who have malocclusion). 2.6 When there is 1 degree of freedom, the author should indicate whether a directional or nondirectional hypothesis was tested. 2.7 Use of the Yates correction (if appropriate) should be reported. Most textbooks recommend against using the Yates correction.

SECTION 3: REPORTING T TESTS

3.1 The number of observations, mean, and standard deviation of the mean should be reported for each group or treatment. Standard error also may be reported. 3.2 When data are correlated (eg, the same person is observed under 2 treatments or at 2 different times), the paired t test should be used, and the correlation coefficient and paired t test results should be reported. 3.3 Both the t statistic and its P value should be
THE JOURNAL OF PROSTHETIC DENTISTRY 1

THE JOURNAL OF PROSTHETIC DENTISTRY

AUTHOR

reported. The author should clearly indicate whether a 1-tailed or a 2-tailed test was performed. The selection of a 1-tailed test requires strong justification. 3.4 If multiple t tests are performed, appropriate steps (eg, multiple-range test or the Bonferroni adjustment) should be taken to control the Type I error rate.

SECTION 5: REPORTING CORRELATION/REGRESSION ANALYSIS

5.1 The mean and standard deviation for each variable should be reported, together with all simple correlations for all variables taken pairwise. 5.2 If more than one pair of variables is involved and the number of observations varies by pair, the number of observations for each pair should be reported, and the use of such data should be justified. 5.3 If regression analysis is used, the author should mention whether the assumptions of the regression model were evaluated and, if they were not met, what steps were taken to correct the problems. This includes discussion of residual plots for issues of linearity and constant variance, discussion of the normality of residuals, and discussion of outliers. The author should consult a biostatistician. 5.4 For regression models that are decided on from large sets of variables, the author should consult a biostatistician. It is important to describe the selection process in detail.

SECTION 4: REPORTING ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE RESULTS

4.1 Means and standard deviations should be reported for each level of each factor. Standard error also may be reported. If the number of observations varies by level, this fact should be reported. 4.2 An analysis of variance table should be reported for each source of variation. The table should include the sum of squares, degrees of freedom, mean square, and F and P values (if applicable). Such a table is especially necessary for 2 or more factors to make explicit the consideration of interaction effects. 4.3 Any factors considered to represent withinsubject effects or random effects should be clearly identified in the textual description. Moreover, the appropriate ANOVA model should be used to account for correlated data along with the correction (eg, epsilon) for such correlation. 4.4 In the presence of a significant interaction effect, significance for a main effect involved in the interaction should be justified by analysis of the interaction pattern present. As a method for depicting data trends, graphs are strongly recommended; they should show the nature of significant interactions, the multiple factors or levels of factors, and complex results involving more than 2 factors. Appropriate error bars must be included.

SECTION 6: REPORTING RESULTS FROM OTHER STATISTICAL TESTS

6.1 Tests other than those cited above may be needed to test hypotheses. Any such test should be accompanied by citations of the appropriate literature as well as a succinct but adequate explanation of what the test does and why it is appropriate for the situation.

VOLUME 87 NUMBER ?