!

e,

!ul

Figul,e 3

..

-..,..:=-.,.::.===:=:::=L:::::-i

-igure 4

-:-trr:

YL)

Lp. ZJOJ

Z-.----\

.\

.)
E!ECTRON

quantum of light, ol photon, carries an enel'gy invelsel. proportional to the wavelength of the light, the plopi:lionality being governed by Planck's constant' In tl'-i model a light beam contains a lalge number of photor" (about l0; pel second in the beam of a flashlight), ar-:

Figure

:;

- 3ier

energy state to a lower state in an atom or a molee. This process is reverseC in most cases in which light

Light is emitted when an electron drops from

the photoelectlic effect occurs when a given photor' '' absoi'bed by a palticulal electlon, with the total ener= of the photon being tlansfelled to the electron' The re-' tion between the energy transfel'r..ed to the electron a: -

the wavelength of the light has been precisely measur'' and founcl to be in accot'd rvith the plediction flom E:

s absorbed.

o-->
Figure 9 Photoelectric effect is an alternate means of light absorption, in which an electron is knocked out of an atom or a molecute by a photon. lt was Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect as the absorption of a quantum of energy and the emission of an electron carrying the same amornt of energy that established the quantum nature of
Ii

ght.

The Compton efiect plovides further erridence ti-'' eiectlons interact with light thlough sng6unl615 t:: discrete bodies in the light beam that carry moment'ii and energy. Here it had been observed that x rays pa"ing through matter often increase in wavelength T:was interpreted by Arthur Holly Compton as a loss .' energy due to collisions between ihe highly eners': ' x-ray photons and the electrons. From the equa:' : showing the relation of wavelength to energy Comp ' argued that the wavelength shift in the x rays rr't -' h"Lr" o simple dependence on scatteling angle, and ::' was in facf observed. It was shown soon afterward : the use of coincidence counting techniques that an e-= tlon lecoils flom each scattered photon and carries the energy and momentum given up by the pho: These billiard-ball collisions plainly show that an r-:'
beam behaves like a stream of particles' Similar beha'. ' has been demonstrated for electlomagnetic radiatio:' other wavelengths' Although photons obey the same equations gol'erl- ;

stein's hypothesis.

\,^\/V>

the relation of momentum and energy as othel' partl '' do, the relation is a special one in the case of the phc: owing to its vanishing rest mass (see Fig.6)' The r'-'' tive prominence of the wave properties of photor-' -

therefore

consequence

of the vanishing of the :'

\
X rays passtng wavelength' An X ray thiough matter may increase photon that strikes an electron is deflected and Ioses energy; the wavelength shift and scattering angle are reiated by the dependence of wavelength on energy'
Figure 10 Compton effect explained how

mass, rather than a qualitative difierence betrveen F:'

in

tons and other particles. The same characteristic ''-. counts fol the fact that the speed of light is indeper'i= of its energy. The velocity of particles with nonzero := ph : r . mass increases as their enel'gy increases. Fol the
velocity does not ci"range wiih energy at all' The discovery that both light and matter have u''. : and. particle properties has made it easier to undels:-: horv these properties can exist together in either ligl-: in the new desc:::matter. This understanding is set out tion of nature, perfected in the 1920's, knorvn as qrj: tum mechanics. The basic objects described br. --:' quantum mechanics of either light or matter are partr- that are at least somer.vhat localized in space' The rt'' ' aspects of light and matter express the fact that tl-=" particles do not obey deterministic laws of motiol" ihey would in classical mechanics. Instead the larvs ii ' obey govern only the relative probabilities of motior- '' difierent speeds in different dilections, even for a sir : particle in a knorvn field of force' The waves assoct; ' -

critical *,avelength fol the efiect. The emission of electrons rvill occ.t. or-tly on exposure of the metal to light of

this u'a','elength or a shorter one. The efiect depends entirelv on rvavelength and is independent of the intensity

of ti.t" light. Fu;thermore' even for very rveak light

srul'ces. the ejected electrons may come out simrrltane.:sh. u'ith the incidence of the light, t'ithout any time

' '..:.i re,lrLired fol tlte accumulation of enelgy' l: '.-.';.s impossible to understand these aspects of the . . :,-l-rtric effect on the basis of a model in which the -rrht is uniformly distributed over the whole rl.r,t ...ave. In light of low intensity there -:,,-:Scient energ-v at any one place in the : : . .::- electron. On the other hand, the ob'. : ,- '.'. directlv fronr Einstein's descliption =-::,- effect, according to rvhich each

rvith light and matter are a way of describing tL-'"

probabilities. Hence when a light beam passes throuri-' ' hole, there is some plobability, related to the waveler':of the light, that the photons in the beam will not . straight through, giving a geometrical image of the h--.

FigurellInterferencefringesfromanexperimentlikeYoung,swerephotographedbyBrian front of a lens (focal diameter, ZZ'ni-upi*,ivere set in Thompson. Two apertures'i--+ rnl i. light' ."ri'rilsz meters) and illuminated with mercury-arc a given porlrt orl total probabilitl' of n photon's hitting sum of the plobabilithe collecting scleen u'oulcl be the for each path; in o.ther ....ords' the ii"r "i'ir.t.-r,LppeI'ring . simple sun of the independerrt ,..tld il"

;;;;;;;';

11'

- : -'nation : :: are used instead of holes Light from a :'..:d through a single slit to attain some coner----,'fans 6;x13cLo into fans by two slits The , . ':rm fringes (right)'

of f ringes is evident in this diagram'

pa't' oi the divicled beam. Instead paitern' screen displavs arr -inte.fer-ence ;i,;;ii;;.-g according to larvs ift"l"ra",--ts pelfectly inielligibie, intensrty at an)' go""*i"g u'ave motion' in rvhich the of the waves siven point is the sum of the amplitudes point ut" the intensities) reaching that thus in differeut .l^no nrthS of cliitelent length and is inte'preted thif ;t# i;;;;1;;"" ^erperiment of the pl.rotons depends on ir'ltJt""it"* that the -uiiut pl.roton phvsical s)'stem' If-rve allor'v tlie il"^;;;;d rvhich' the lr'ithout detelmining i""n""4f.,:*,gL
intensities of the trvo

ruilt:;;"r",

'tit revield -l'l';-""r"*ili "itit"t tlie inter{et'ence pattern that of rathe' the interfere.ce ;Ht"il;"t;"i'riii"t-" rvill find this or that paih f."fr"irifiai"r-thai a photon coulcl instead monitor the If rve
to tI're collecting sct'een passed thlough on pfl"a"n. to fil,J out rvhich slit they the intelferelce, pattern "r'ould their rvay to the scleen,
clisappeal and rve rt'ottli

I
{
,l

'"" ilrteniities (see Figs' 14 and 15 ) '

the sum of the independent

.:.l

': .':.'e explanation of fringes is evident in a plan " . .,',; seis of wave fronts that emerge from the -, -: wave fronts move outward' "beams" of high - : :ck cliamond shapes) develop where wave cresrs '- . ts travel together and are therefore in phase .-. ::iughs also along the same directions)' At right ' -' :helesulting wave intensity: the fringes' .:: s'ill be cleflectecl, ending up iri the gcometlrthe - .' r'egion. Tl-re intensitv of the -r'r'aves in a measttle of this plobabilit-v . p.rtteln ts me. : -.in the Young experiment -thr'rt histolically ls . .he rv,tve nature of Iight' The crperimcnl an '. ,. ,,*'fhotous follorvecl clnssical
to )'ield --:lolmecl u'ith parallei nl11'ru\\'slits' of iternating b'ight a'd shadorved -.;;,,;', trajectolies' the .-. .ee horv the probabilities tliat qur'trltum :.. rciirtes with palticles (of light ol other'.mat-

rrot.depend at The development of the patteln cloes beam' ihat is' on the number tf.l" i,-tt",','ity of the 50 "ff "" ;i';;;;;;t goi,,g ih'n.'gh the slits' As long as vears Camb'idge perr. i"i'rnl of the U'riversitl' of ;;; " atl expet'imeut r'vith a light source so atterruated folmed than one photon that most of tlie time there rvas ''tu -nt'" an *"y to the collecting screen' Yettrftelplateexposure sli.rved ""-iat ,",r".o1 mo't'ts tie photographic

;;;".,i

[he irrtcr'felence Pattelrl!

has leA similar expeliment, employing lasel light' Leottand U""r't 1r"iu"rr"d by Robert L Pfleegol ""nitf the Univllsity of Rochester' \Ionitoling "rJ'lf*taai,f each photon as they came through one b! ii* ""i""i"f a t'au;;;, ;;; "u.t,tt"" show"cl that each photon fortnd 'i"""rt"" the cletector" Yet '"vhen a sufficient at a"formed the i"-fr"t ,,f photons had come tirrough' thev t1'.:1llTber of ph"in'terference patteln- Ih* "tt"""a position on the scleell ls 1'rl.'tons alriving at a given
piltteitL po.tior,al to the intensity of the interference :':'

i1r^,'p"l"a,

*r'".,J*"r""gthofthelightinquestion.This.h.'..-.

"^icultrted

accolding to the s'a'e 116 ;r'

'

I r$-.il'.tr#dffii*t*'l +: {- re\ lV l/i\ H.a;.}"*::}H"$*it'ir't*i: I / i ;H1**l*::,H:;.::[l'il:"Xii;"';liii I I

I

Mr\
L
NUiiBER

1t-\-1 [:1?'i",1JJ':;lilii"r:':":,]":1,:::"",'; Ii | i|\ \

fying a simPle equation. -'-fit

a wave s"-described by a concept that is as familiar as

of the two-srit ex- ;i"Ga""toanexchangeof Figure 14 Crassical parrrcle description particles this latter case the photons are called virtual p}' say tnut iit" Jittiibution of all periment would of the relationtetrveen tn"tt "'l::tJ";Jr1i1'J;. relation tetrveen their e.ergy and the:: ihe screen I.it."rr..r (right curve) (curve because the that arrive at the screen l.-il.,. ,rrn this r' physicr slit the-upper mentum is different' Quantum physics invokes particles from the upper distribution curves for purtLr.r-ttot stribution forces beof vi'tual-particle exchange to account for A) and lower slit (curve B).

iff.lf f,ff;::i,',njl'ii"'T:l';ffil# ii:ll,.1iLil il,:"iff"1":^::^ffi;1fr:::'i,'.1,:'lii:lffii.ii' the - I ;i';r;.*;;i '.."ii"*.,.rit

VA ill*j$f+"#ltlr,,'ffi:1*[ti*:; I
+

:' pict tot.,rol io is naturr] to ask horv this pictule of light to confolm lvith the:''' ,tr"o* of photorrs can be made iio" U"a*""" iight and electlomagnetism' the disco"'physics !of r",hich rvas aligh point of l9th-centuly relatiot-l -' ' haps the most insttuctive r"'ay to view the sai that, rathel tl'rar-r consideling light as an aspe' ' electlomagnetism, rve no*' think of electlomag: '' It i-t 'phenomena as one manifestation of photons-' in accoldance witli this policy' to think oi ' i"""gft, to place "' trar-,sirissiott of radiant enelg-v flom pltrce acrossthe gap Wit'h r" -ing due to photons tlaveling ' mlr" difficltlty we can visualize the state electric *d rnoglt"il" folces that occul betrveen charges ::..^:
photonsbetrveentl.re:.

B)

I
t

I l
r I

l-B*
t'E\l
']i'1(; + ; 0
NLIMBER

,Kl

particles in cases other-than electromagne:t: L"-t':t.: ;,"'mi:":::*:il::if;:i""t""",:H.rfifi;r;!:, ffi,:fi;, i".1t^-nr", a'e described as being i'--mesons Here again w are l: the exchange of vil'tual

il#r'',t;"H#iruili#;1ffi1t" 'f;::nii::"il;:ii:il:::lIi*""*tii,,

lI
I

</ I
'

,"'l\'J;$:;y":illll,."'I"1,..,,"."e:t*T: gerre.rlll' t:T"t:,,::;::;,t can be

""'.,.1"J'tl,.ugh

lI ,

i5ffi';,ff:il'il1'"il; : ::T[11;l ;:;.*"J,*:ru; | .-l'i'fi',','"':'..:i.'li1:'l ;i:iti,xliili*iJ*ryn *lll;"*,1"!'. t #JIlT"e'Jl*it[*is correct *t the crassicar one' "o H*tuJ:;;xi"t"*1"":tJ"tttJ:$i:: f:ifl I ' photon associated with each the rvave ploperties must be ;;r"ttl"t#::Hcff.i.tf:ffii:t;il"";:':J;tt!'ilJ- ' I manv photons,lJ,l";";l:f;]. or a uni- probabiiit,v or fittcling '"ti:tlTJili"$ilXtff HiT"* :*1,,'11", I rn these ci,se. ,,",*uiu"r.u.,io, or or,;""T*r:t*llil1i"trJ:il;
mechanical descliption

IhHi+#mm{$[+,itt*

"llillll;i:"-T,,::t"i:"r*h';;
t,u"""r"n,r"

lt:;*t-"f,:11:li'.l',""r'*,1:',"i,f+", '*o,.e,rr"f,,l ro use the older field description, since-" i

l:1**ru*i'llliiffl'il;5*'il$il"1,H: is moving
u'ave Iight a of various photon -"ai"".'^r"-descr-ibed

f#;1-'1;1*:::t;',i'liil-:l:",ll1H#:1";-'. rvav, the fl*ctuations in the

th",tnt"-"na'o""arr"r

I
"

:::tj1i"y-x,Tg5#j:#hTilJJ"ij:,i,til',"T

i iiil**l:illJiH":'iJ:,i:,"J;;':."';nffi t#'i*:"*,:*t':x'l#:',TilJl:,11":;;J,J-:inCI IrOlIl rrr4rrur, .r . , -L^ -^-^1-,

il:lff,'ffi:t1H;"1#"Jil?11"""""'l*r are unimport ::

*:Tf*:d;";";"'u-;"J.t'gt" -liil"ii'x';"other
m2nv
CaSeS,

r"r'iir"- Nor is ther.e "rr';;;;;t 'froif-, *".r" *a;;;i; _,.=d i' the occur'"#';f -:-. tn" n"'u"i"''"o*po'l''g.rii'ft : ::',.r,'1 i. ligtrt -i:
:-.-:rier.is needed

propertv or photons that is imp It is te:.--: in sit.ations involving many simila'photons' par:r:: othe'stable subatomic Bose statistics' \{osi

l[Tl .,.-''.: L:1,*j\;""i:ilj:*iT#ill;.,:i:,*":"'t:

16 Trt
iLECTROi\TAGNETIC SPECTRUM

^"i :*:""5:::';t;]i::ttlt"rnl;g*i":;i;';""' existence.or more thar'

''"ih]orbids
the

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'Pnord oq Ila.{\

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.

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I I

oql

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-qE aq

'uaas eq oJ stntuar suorlJelo

qlP\ ]rln{

Jo uollcu

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-t-t"1""

euo 'suoloqd I JI 'lulod slql uo-IJ 'eur11 e 1e q lq8{ qll^\ uopce-I3lul -:' pue uorsslura aql slr pue'e8reqc 1u1od e sE ua{l aq uar ls'- -:

's11s uo.rqcale

llar uoloqd aql lutl] .{1llqeqo:d aLr_ eql a.Iaq.t\ lurod aql l? uoloti: :

eleq lou saoP - -cala eql sl raplsuor o1 e1crl-red paFreqc lsr-:--

uV

'oJnlcnJJS ul\ou>I .'(ue

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tl

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1o 3u1.ie11ecs

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11

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ssac

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ilrrrr

irrf'
r'

aq] ur .rnrco uc auol suolorid '('i11 ":-: .ro 'uoJr.te.rE leclleqlod.{q aql .roJ lcll\-uatuala alqls oql IIE JO 'turuualuoLu

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