1

Joyous,EqualandFree:OntheConditionsofFelicityin HumanOrganizations1
Baybee'misaysi'repliedinalaughingvoice:Mylifemaybefoolish, Waynaboozhoo,butIhaveapurposeinlifeasnobleasyours.Mypurposeistotease thosewhotakethemselvestooseriously.Iteasethehumanbeings,Iteasethebuffalo andallthefourleggeds,andIteasethespirits,too.Thereisaplaceforfoolishnessin theCreation. (BentonBanai,E.1979:54) Whatcausescommunitiescharacterizedbyhighdegreeofpersonalautonomyanda lackofconstraintsduetoanabsenceofrankandpower,tobecohesiveandstableis ahardquestiontoanswerinananthropologicallycogentway.Havingconsidered suchacommunityinmyfieldstudies(Macdonald1977,2007),andaftersubsequent interpretiveattempts,Ihavesoughtananswerintermsofvaluesandattitudesand inapervasiveethospredicatedonsomethingIcallconditionsoffelicityof collectiveliving(Macdonald2008).Thephraseisborrowedfromlinguisticswhere itmeansconditionsforaspeechacttobesuccessful(Austin1962)andbyitImean simplyconditionsthatenableinterpersonalrelationstohappenandmeetbasic psychologicalandemotionalrequirementsoftheactorsconcerned,inorderfor theserelationstogetestablishedandrecur.Itisthenanadaptationtosocialityof Austinsdefinition,andsomehowdepartingfromit2.IfsomeoneItrytoengagein conversationturnsaroundanddoesnotacknowledgemyverbalentreatiesthenI willsaythattheconditionsoffelicityforasocialorinterpersonalengagementare notmet.Theinteractionstopsthere.Ifthispersonrespondsbylookingatmeand acknowledgingbyhisentiredemeanormypresencewhileutteringwordsthatare consonantwiththetenorofwhatIsaid,thenIwillsaythattheconditionsoffelicity 1IamindebtedtotheFlorenceGouldFoundationformystayattheInstituteforAdvancedStudy,
Princeton,duringwhichIwasabletopreparethispaper.Apreliminaryversionofitwaspresentedat theAnthropologyClub,NewYorkStateUniversityatBuffaloon24November2008.IthankRobert DentanandRichardShwederfortheirinsightfulcommentsonapreliminaryversionofthispaper. 2SeealsoGoffmansassumptions(Goffman1983)andGricesmaximsofconversation(Grice1975).I thankBarryONeillforpointingthisouttome.

forourinteractionaremet.If,moreover,theresponseIgetfromtheotherpersonis soengagingandrepletewithwarmfeelings,Iwillnotonlycontinuetheinteraction butevenwishforitsrenewalatsomeulteriortime.Thesupportingelementsof theseconditionshereareattentiongiventothespeaker,relevanceofresponse relativetothewordsofspeaker;facialandbodilymovementsexpressinginterest, pleasure,friendship,concern;speechactsstatingpositiveorwarmfeelings, respectfulattitude,agreement,etc. Socialscientistshaveusedanumberoftermstodescribeastaterecognizedas felicitousandconducivetoastableandrepetitiveinteraction:togetherness, conviviality,empathy,intimacy,grace,immediacy,harmony,etc.(seeBirdDavid 1994:591,594,andIngold1999:405onintimacy,andMacdonald2008:1415on harmony).Suchastatehasconnectionswithsuchdimensionsofsocialityas solidarity,bonding,sharedactivity,consensus,andcooperation. Myapproachisperhapsbetterdefinedaspsychologicalanthropologyratherthan culturalpsychology.Ithashowevermuchincommonwiththeconcernsof anthropologistsdealingwiththesocialandmoralcontextofemotionalexperience (Schweder,etal.i.p.)andparticularlyacontextdefinedasethicsofautonomy, ethicsofcommunity,andtheattendantculturallyvaluedaspectsoftheself (Shweder2003:1120).AttitudesordispositionsIamlookingformusthaveenough normativepowertobecomeinstitutionalized;theymustbeculturallyencryptedand expressedinanidiomofmoralgoods;theyarelikelytobefoundinvarioussettings, andindifferentculturalandhistoricalcontexts.Iamseekingthenacertaindegree ofgeneralityandcrossculturalsimilarityatasubphenomenallevel.Also,Ishall focusonthepsychologicalandmoralfactorsconducivetostablebondingand positiverelatedness,ratherthanthosethataredisruptiveandconflictproducing. Bothsetsoffactorshaveadialecticalrelationshipwithoneanother(Fajans 2006:107),butitisnotconflictresolutionthatismymainconcern,itisratherthe avoidanceofconflict,eveniftheseprocessescannotbeentirelyseparated.

 Mystartingpointwillbethenotionofanonymity,whichwillleadtothetwin notionsofequalityandreciprocalhumility3.Iwillfurtherconsiderhumorand

laughterwithanattentiontohealthyobscenity.Inthisexcursion,Ishallinvestigate twodifferentkindsofcollectiveentities:enclavedandnonenclaved.Nonenclaved aggregatesarecommunitiesthatareautonomousandlivealifeoftheirownina geographicallydistinctportionoftheuniverse,justwhatwecallethnicgroupsor tribalsocieties(Inuit,Palawan,Semai,etc.)4.Althoughdependenttoacertaindegree ontheirhumanenvironment(madeofhegemonicornonhegemonicpolities)they possessaselfcontainedrealityandmanagetheirownselfreproductionprocess. TheenclavedaggregatesIhaveinmindareoftwokindsalso:cenobitesthatare embeddedinastateorganizationbuttendtoliveincompleteselfsufficiency (hippiecommunes,libertarianmovements,Amishcommunities,etc.,Dentan1992: 219,1994:7374),andintentionalcommunities,fellowshipsorassociationsthat meetoccasionallyandforaspecificpurposeonly(AlcoholicsAnonymous,adeptsof theJapaneseTeaCeremony,deafmutes,etc.).Allthesedifferentaggregatesdisplay somecommonorsimilarfeaturesintheirethos,moralvaluesandinteractivehabits. AsIwilltrytoshow,acommonthreadisrunningthroughwhatappearsas completelydissimilarsituationsandculturalsettings.Thistreadisanattentiontoa strictequalityofstatus,aninsistenceonthehumbleandnonaggressive,andattimes spiritual,dimensionoftheinteraction,resultinginanintriguingconflationbetween equalityandspirituality.

AnonymityinAlcoholicsAnonymous
ThefellowshipofAlcoholicsAnonymous(AA)hasbeenanobjectofanthropological studyandanumberofstudies,booksandarticleshavebeendevotedtoits investigation(amongthoseseeCain1991,Dentan19944,Gellman1964,Jensen 3Ispeakofreciprocalhumilitywhenallinteractingpartnersareexpectedtoshowahumble,self
disparagingattitude,asituationresultinginstrictequality,asopposedtounilateralhumility expressingsubserviencetoapersonofsuperiorstatus. 4Nonenclavedindigenouscommunitiescannonethelessbeencapsulated,thatisgeographically containedbysurroundingdominantgroupsandsocieties.

2000,Lechner2003,Maxwell1961,Millarn.d.,Rudy1984,Steinbring1981,Trevino 1992).Myinterestforthisparticularassociation,AA,stemsfromitsobvious anarchicnatureasanorganizationandfromitsresilienceinanuncongenial environment.Bornin1935,AAhasgonethroughallsortsofgrowingpainsand travailsbuthasremainedaviable,productiveandsuccessfulassociation,without becomingareligioussect,oragovernmentdependentagency,orapolitical movement,proofenoughthatananarchictypeofaggregatecansurvivetruetoitself inanonanarchicBabylonianenvironment.Sofarithasresisted institutionalizationverysuccessfully.FellowmembersofAAarepeacefulanarchists withintheconfinesoftheirassociativeactivitiesthatis,andinasmuchasthey recognizenomannerofchiefsorleaderswithintheirassociationandatthesame timefulfillasocialfunction:theyhelpaddictedpeoplegettheiracttogetherand thussavesocietyalotofexpensesandtrouble. Iwillnowconcernmyselfwiththeconceptofanonymitymainlybecauseitis, accordingtoAAsselfdefinitionasspelledoutintheAATwelveTraditions,the spiritualfoundationofitstraditions(Alcoholicsanonymous1952:188). Anonymityisfurtherdefinedasputtingprinciplesbeforepersonalities(id.),is linkedwithsacrifice(ibid.)andwithhumility(ibid.192).Otherexplanationsare givenastowhyanonymityisanimportantprinciple,especiallyregardingtheimage ofthefellowshipinthegeneralpublic(ibid.191).InhispenetratingstudyoftheAA fellowshipLechnerspellsoutsomeofthemainpointsofanonymity,especiallythe factthatitprotectsmembersfromthestigmatizingglareofoutsiders(Lechner, 2003:35).WhenspeakingamongthemselvesduringagroupmeetingAAmembers usetheirfirstnameonlyoranynameoftheirchoosing.Conversely,When memberswhoknoweachothermeetinpublictheydonotdisclosetheirAAidentity tononmembers(id.:38). Thereishoweveralingeringconfusionabouttheveryconceptofanonymity,one whichIthinkneedsuntangling.Whatisexactlyanonymityandwhyshoulditbe consideredaspiritualfoundation,evenseenasaformofsacrifice.Whydoes anonymitytranslateintohumility?

 Inmostcasespersonalnamesreflectthehierarchicalaspectofsociety.Onlyin

certaincasesarenamingsystemsstructuredsoastoreflect,nothierarchy,prestige ordominance,butfriendshipanddyadicegalitarianrelations,orsomeother spiritualpropertiesdevoidofanyrankingconnotation(Macdonald1999,2006,i.p.) InEuropeansocietiesdominatedbyabinomialortrinomialnamingsystem(first name+middlename+surname)theentiresyntagmisattachedtothepersonasa statusloadedmemberofarankedsociety.Inspiteofegalitariananddemocratic aspects,Westernsocietiesremainfundamentallyhierarchicalinmostspheresof activity,andnamespointatleastvirtuallytoasocialstatuswithinthesehierarchical systems.Notusingonesfullname(thecompletebinomialortrinomialsyntagm) amountstohidingonessocialstatus.Inotherwords,itmeanspresentingoneselfas neitherhighernorlowerthananyoneelse.Anonymityinthissensemeansequality. Whenaddressingeachotherbytheirfirstnames,oranickname,AAmembers publiclyestablishtheinformalandfraternal(thereforehumble)styleoftheir interaction.IntheEnglishorFrenchnamingsystemsbeingonfirstnamebasisis obviouslyasignofintimacyandequality(inFrenchpronounsunderlinethiseven morestrongly;tuinsteadofvous).Itisalsoagoodglossforthewordhumility. Thespiritualfoundationofthefellowshipisthenrootedintheabsoluteequalityof itsmembers,notasmembersofanysocialorreligiousorpoliticalgroupor organization,andthereforehavingnopartinanykindofhierarchy.Thereisno socialstatusinAA5.AAmembershavenootherselfthanthesufferingalcoholicself. Theyaresociallyselfless.Iwishthentoclosethissectionbythegeneral conclusionthatthemostsacred(loadedwithquasimysticalvalue)principlein suchafellowshipasAAissimplythat:equalityandreciprocalhumility.Letusnote alsothatthiskindofinteractionbetweenpureselvesopensthewaytowhatthe AApeoplecallsharing.Thistransaction,asharingofwords,whenapersontells his/herstory,isseenashavinghealingpower,promotingatherapeutic identificationwiththeother.
5Bytheirfirstnameonlymodeofaddressandreference,AAsresembleInuitsanddeafmutes

(Macdonald2006,Delaporte1998).

TheJapaneseTeaCeremony
ThisfundamentaldimensionofAAsociabilitydefinedasspiritualispresentina numberoftribalsocietieswherereciprocalhumilityisencouraged.Itisalsopresent inanotherandverydifferentsetting,thatoftheJapaneseTeaCeremony,an institutionoriginatinginZenBuddhism.LikeAAs,aficionadosoftheTeaCeremony formclubsorcirclesandmeettoshareteainaformalandritualway.Thereare schoolsteachingtheartofpreparingandservingteaandhowtoobservethe numerousprescriptionsattendanttoitsconsumption.Adeptsdeclarethisactivityto beimbuedwiththehighestdegreeofspiritualandaestheticreverence.Whatthey actuallydoisasmysteriousasthenotionofanonymityinAA.Therearemany variantsandwaystoperformthishighlysophisticatedactivity.Basicallyhowever, thehostpreparesamixtureofgreenteaandoffersitinabowl(preferablyancient andmeetingcertainaestheticcriteria)tohisguests.Theysitinpreordained arrangementandinturnsipthemixtureandpassitaroundwhileoffering appreciativecomments.Afterdrinking,theyexaminetheutensils,thebowl,thetea caddy,etc.Thentheyleaveandgobacktowhatevertheyarenormallydoing (Wikipedia,2008).IalwayshaddifficultyseeingthisasspirituallyelevatinguntilI happenedtoreadthefollowingdescription: Thetasteofaretiredlifeofelegancehasalwaysbeenandstillisthe characteristicoftheJapanesetemperament,asisevidentfromthepopularity ofthephilosophyoftheChanoyuorTeaism,whichenablesevenbusy peopletobecometemporaryhermitsintheTearoom,tobeintheworld thoughforawhilenotofitThefixingofthesizeoftheTearoomasfour andahalfmatsindicateitsdescentfromthecelloftheBuddhistrecluse VimalakirrtiwhomiraculouslyentertainedinittheBuddhaandthree thousandfivehundredofhissaintsanddisciples,andhasasitwere crystallizedandhandeddownthemoodofChomeiasahistorical philosophicalretreatforallwhowishtorefreshtheirsoulsbytemporary retirement.(Sadler1972:iii,myemphasis). Inthispassagetheauthorrevealstheritualasbelongingtoaclassofeventslongago identifiedbyanthropologistsandfolklorists.Itisaritedepassageandthe ceremonyitselfissetinamoodoftypicalliminality,thatisinasituationof

 temporaryseparationfromtheeverydaysocialworld.Participantsinthetea

ceremonyaretemporarilyextractedfromtheirbusytimetable,andareplacedina retreat(awayfromthemundane)inordertoshareabeveragefromthesame bowl,thusindicatingequality.ForthosefamiliarwithJapanesesociety,oneofthe mostobsessivelyrankedintheworld,probablyjustbehindtheIndiancastesociety, agatheringofpeopleofthiskindisarefreshmentforthesoul.Verymuchlikean AAmeetingseenasanislandofsobrietyandserenityinaseaofBabylonian turbulence(Lechner2003:91),theteaceremonyisanislandofcalmequalityina seaofunremittinghierarchyandconstantlypressingdemandsofrank.Itistrue howeverthattheJapaneseteaceremonyisimbuedalsowithasenseofdecorum andstrictetiquette(guestsandhostbowtoeachother)andassuchitkeeps somethingoftheexternalhierarchicalspace.Andalsoitdoesnotofcourseaddress aproblemlikeAAdoesforalcoholicaddiction.Itremainsthattheliminal,outofthe worlddimensionofthewholeprocess,inuresitfromtheusualpeckingorderto whichindividualsaresubmittedintheofficeandotherpublicsituations. Chanoyuistsgettogetherintheworldthoughforawhilenotofit,sharesomething instrictequalitywithintheconfinementofaseparatedandspirituallyprotected space,andthengoawaywithnobindingcommitmenttoeachother.Theyjust experienceanorderwithnoonegivingorders.ItismaybewhatIcalledharmony, akindofemotionalcoresonancebetweenactorsstemmingfromliminalityand calmequality. TheaboveanalysismustbeseeninthewidercontextofJapaneseculturalandsocial history.WhileoriginatinginZentemplesinthe13thand14thcenturies,theritualof teaceremonyevolvedasanindependentartforminthe16thcentury.Inthe ritualizedspaceofteahouses,merchants,lords,andmonkscouldmeettogetheras equals(Ikegami2005:120).Inherilluminatingdescriptionofthezaarts,Ikegami goesontodefinethemeaningoftheteaceremonyasonemarkedbythespiritof oneness,byequalityandhumility,bytheformationofcongenialegalitarian relationshipsamongthemembers,byasenseofcommunalsolidarity(Ikegami 2005:120123),andbyasenseofephemerallightness(94).Therewasnoformal

 organizationalstructure,teaceremonieslikeotherzaarts,suchastherenga

poetry,constitutedenclavesoffreesocializationinwhichpeoplecouldtemporarily suspendtheapplicationoffeudalnorms(76,myemphasis).Theroomwherethetea ceremonytakesplacecanalsobeseenasafreespaceofmuen(norelation)(122). Teaceremoniesbecameaninstrumentofpoliticalpower.ShogunslikeNobunaga andHideyoshiusedthemtopoliticalends,butthespiritoftheteaceremonywas keptintheopenspiritofzaart,inwhichparticipantssocializewithoneanother withoutregardtoformalstatusdistinctions(123). Veryclearlythentheteaceremonyhadallthetrappingsofanantistructure, negatingsocialdistinctionstothepointofmixingthesacredandtheprofane,the marginaloutcastswiththeinsiders,inanabsolutecontradistinctiontoanysocial hierarchyandbycrossingmajorsymbolicboundaries.Inseveralimportantways, butinquiteadifferentstyle,thisremindsoneofEuropeanmedievalcarnivals(see below).

Humor
IntheprecedingsectionIhaveestablishedthatequalityanditsmoraland psychologicalexpressionofreciprocalhumilitywererelationalmodesofinteraction soughtbyactors.AssuchtheycanbeconsidereddimensionsofwhatIcalledthe conditionsoffelicityofacollectiveformofexistence.Humilityandasenseofstrict equalitywithinasharedspaceofinteractionarefelicitous.Membersofsuch associationslikethemanddeemthemimportant.Itallowsthem,naymovesthem powerfully,torepeattheirinteraction.Butthereareobviouslyanumberofother dimensionsthatareatworktoensureinterconnectivityamonghumans.Among thosethatseemspecifictothekindofcommunalityIamdiscussingishumorand laughter.Iwillconsidersituationsotherthanthosejustdescribed,andmore characteristicofnonenclavedcommunities. Thequestionofhumorandlaughterbegsforsomepreliminaryremarks. Anthropologistshavepaidsomeattentiontothisphenomenon,butprobablynot

 enough.Specializedstudiesexisthowever,andsomeethnographicattentionhas

focusedonjoking,humor,laughter,etc.(seeforinstancestudiesonSouthandNorth AmericanIndianhumorinWallace1953,Bernard1975,Griffith1975,Reifler Bricker1980,Clastres1989,Beaudet1996),butasL.Mintzremarkedinabook review,studentsarenottrainedtoconsiderhumorasavitalaspectofculture (Mintz,1986:339).Merriment,especiallywhenlinkedtosexualmattersor scatology,maybeseenasunsuitableorsecondratematerialforasociologicaland anthropologicalstudy.Thereisclearlyalackofscholarlyattentiontofoolery (Overing2000:64).Thisechoesanotherremark,bemoaningthedearthofobscene materialsinNativeAmericanfolklore:Plainprudishnessisthusthefirstandmost obviousreasonforthescarcityofobscenematerials.(Bernard1975:385).But prudishnessisnottheonlyreason.Themainreason,Isubmit,isthatitisprecisely notserious.Seriousnessinourintellectualtraditioncarriesthemeaningof important,thatwhichreallymatters.Laughterdoesnotmatter.Joking,teasing, bantering,jesting,mirth,gaiety,glee,hilarity,andamusementingeneral,arenot seriousactivitiesandthereforeareonlyperipheraltowhatisreallyfunctionalin society.Theyareanecdotalandepiphenomenal,ifnotcompletelyirrelevant phenomenainaserioustheoryofsociallife,lackingastheydothenecessary gravitaswithwhichtoaddressessentialandstatelymatters.Theseriousfactor, leaningtowardstheunhappy,thesad,thegloomy,themiserablesideof humanaffairstellsusmore,wetendtobelieve,aboutwhatisreallyimportantinthe workingofhumanrelations.Thisisalongandancienttraditioninthesocial sciencesand,asSahlinshaspointedout,itisconsonantwiththeChristian mythologyoftheFall,thegreaterprovidentialvalueofhumansuffering,the AugustinianandHobbesianviewofhumannatureasselfishanduncaring,andthe Durkheimianviewofsocietyascoerciveandhumansasbottomlesspitsof unsatisfieddesires(Sahlins1996).ThedimviewPascalhadofanydistraction comestomindwithahostofotherexamples,includingtheSartrianprimal experienceofexistencethroughnausea.Weshould,accordingtothem,trustutter revulsionratherthanpurejoywhenseekingthetruecoreofhumanity.

 Anthropologistshavedealtwiththefunnyandtherisibleinasmuchhoweveras laughterwaspartofaninstitution,enshrinedinatradition,andamenableto structuralinterpretation.Jokingwasfineaslongasitclothedaseriousrule.The

10

jokingrelationshipsfamouslyinterpretedbyRadcliffeBrown,isagoodexample ofhowananthropologicalexplanationofthefunnyfactorskirtsitsessentially humorouscontent6.RadcliffeBrown,itmustberemembered,sawinjoking relationshipsasignofastructuralincongruity:kinshiprelationsthatwereboth closeanddistant,acompoundoffriendshipandhostility(RadcliffeBrown1951: 20).Ofcoursethereisnothinginherentlyfunnyaboutsuchasituationcontemplated underthemicroscopeofformallogic.Theideaisthatitallowsanopening,alicense tomakejokes,topokefunorhurlinsultsateachotheracrossthekinshipdivide.A recentarticleprovidesagoodexampleofit(Siran2006).IntheAfricansociety describedbytheauthor,theVouteofCameroon,matrilateralcrosscousinsmaynot marrybutthisformofmarriageisnonethelessdesirable.Asaresulttwo matrilateralcrosscousinswillteaseeachotherinamostsexuallyprovocative fashion.Howeverthefunfactorremainsperipheral,askindeepreactionasit where,anditsessentialfunniness,themeaningfulcoreoflaughter,isnotconsidered asacausalfactor,norisitexplainedinitself. Humororlaughterisconsideredbyanthropologistsandfolkloristsaslegitimate objectsofstudywheneveritarisesaspartofaninstitutionliketheritualclownery oftheHopiIndiansforinstance(Courlander1982,Clemmer1995).Butevenin thesecasesprudishnesspreventsadetaileddescriptionofwhatpeoplereallyjoke aboutwhenitcomestoobscenitiesthatcannotbementioned(Clemmer1995:64). Onecannotimagineworstsinagainstthespiritofscholarlyandscientificpursuit, anditjusttendstoprovehowbiasedandlimitedintheirvisionofhumannatureour socialsciencescanbeattimes. Whatdoesfunreallydoforpeople?Society,aswesawabove,cannotbefunny.Itis abattlefield,oravaleoftears.Notaplaceforclowningaround.TheworkofBakhtin (seebelow)aloneshouldhavekilledthisprejudicelongago,butapparentlyithas 6SeeGraeber2007:1619forasimilarlineofthought.

 not,andthecomicdimensioninsocialliferemainsofanecdotalsignificancefor mostauthors,withsomeexceptions.OneisOveringsessayonPiaorahumor,for whomlaughterandtheludicisanimportantcluetotheverydistinctivenessof [Amazonianpeoples]sociality(Overing2000:64).Shealsoproposestoplace

11

laughterinaconceptualframeworksharedbynotionsofequality,convivialityand theaestheticsandethicsofeverydaylife(678,7677).Laughteristhusatleast amongcertainpeoplespartofwhatIcalltheconditionsoffelicityofcollective livingandthereforepossessesapositiveandcreativevalueincommunitybuilding. So,Iwillfromnowonexaminelaughteranditsderivativesasaseriousfactor.The seriousnessoffunshallberevealed.

InuitHumor
AsenseofhumorhasbeenrecognizedbyalmostallauthorsamongtheInuit.They teaseeachotherandfrequentlypracticevariousformsofbuffooneryandselfor mutualdeprecatoryjokingingoodhumorandfriendlymerriment(Ager1976). Theirgoodhumorandjollitywasremarkeduponbyearlytravelers(Kumlien1880). Playinggames,songsorwhiledancing,theydisplayextremejollity,theyprance around,chuckle,slaptheirknees,hoot,andcontortthemselvesandjumpupand downwiththefunofit(Lantis1946).Anobserversaysthatduringcertaindances inwhichmenandwomenridiculeeachotherinafriendlywaysometimes everyonelaughssomuchthatthedancegetstemporarilyoutofstep.(Ager1976). Moreimportantly,thesameobservernotesthatanyexpressionofemotions, especiallythosethatarenegativelikeangerordepression,mustbesuppressed, exceptforamusementandlaughter(Ager1976:11).AmongtheInupiaqhumorous mimeticdancesareperformedwithahumorfilledstyle(Johnston1980)andthe sameauthornotestheancientbeliefthatasmilingvisitorcannotbeseekingblood feudvengeance(id.).Similarlyhumorousandplayfulbehaviorisseenasawayto avoidconflictamongteenagers(Condon1987:207).Laughterasanantidoteagainst angerandviolenceisatworkintwodifferentkindsofcircumstances:festiveand whentwopersonsmeetoccasionallyorforthefirsttime.Inthesecondcasea

 humorousandmirthfulcountenancemayhavemaskedpotentiallyhostile intentions. Inuitareknownaswellfortheirmethodofconflictresolutionbymeansofsongs andlaughter.Eskimosongduelshavebeenshowntorelyonmirthandgood

12

humour(EckertandNewmark1980:192).Insultsandmutualaccusationsbetween opponentsweresoaired.Theappropriateconclusiontotheduelwasforthe audiencesmirthtodrownthebadfeelingsoftheopponents,whowerethen expectedtolaughofftheiranimosities(192).Althoughanideologyofgoodwill, cooperationandequalitycharacterizesEskimosociety,humanrelationswere unstable,fragileandviolenceneverfar.Murderswerefrequent(194).beneath thesurfaceofgoodwillandharmonythereexistedintensepressures,suspicions, andhostility(197).AmongtheNorthAlaskaEskimosviolencewasendemicand intrusionswouldresultinquiveringragewhichcouldandoftendidleadtomortal violence(Hippler1974).Humorandwarmcompanionshipwerethenpairedwitha strongundercurrentofpotentialviolence.Inanoteonchildsocialization,another anthropologistnotesthecomplexityofaffectsinvolvedinteachingthechildthe rightattitudeofnallik(peacefulandcompassionate),thepresenceofwhatshecalls benevolentaggressionandambiguousgamesplayedwithchildren(Briggs1987). Goingbacktosongduelsandconflictresolution,EckertandNewmarkcontendthat thenecessaryambiguitycontainedinironyisnecessarytoinsurestabilityin interpersonalrelationshipsbecauseactorshavetostrikeabalancebetween suspicionanddistrust.Ironyandhumormaintainthisequilibrium(207).The authorsconcludethatunderlyingtheuseofironyinsongduelsisthefeelingofa constantlyflippingcoin,bymeansofwhichangerbecomeshumor,enmity friendship(208).Badfeelingsarenotremovedbutconvertedintointensegood feelingandjollity(209).Astableambiguityisrestored.(id.) Insum,then,Inuitpeoplemaintainanessentiallypeacefulandfriendlykindof socialitybymeansofalotoflaughterandmerriment,thuspromotinggoodfeelings andatthesametimedisguisingordivertinghostilityandanundercurrentofgreat potentialviolence.Inthiscomplexarrangementofbehavioralnorms,reciprocal

13

humilitycountsasoneofthemostimportant,laughingatandmakingfunofoneself beingalsoattachedtothisattitudeofselfdisparagement,resultinginacomplete rejectionofrank.Humorpromotesequalityandcreatesconviviality.

PalawanHumor
If,intheabovedescription,IreplacedthenameInuitbythenamePalawan,I wouldnothavetochangemuchelse.Myownfieldworkamongthesemostcharming people,inhabitantsofaSouthernPhilippinesisland,providesrecollectionsof momentsmarkedbyintensegaiety,jokingandbantering,horseplaying,makingfun, teasingandjestinginthemosthilariousandoutrageousmanner.Aninclinationfor bawdyhumorwasalwayspresent.MycompanionsweredoingexactlywhatInuits weredescribedasdoing:prancingaround,chuckling,slappingtheirknees, hooting,contortingthemselvesandjumpingupanddownwiththefunofit.Sexual referencesofthecrudestnaturewouldnotbeuncommon7.Arespectedelderfor instancewouldloudlyannounceinthemarketplacehisdesiretocommitincest withhisgranddaughterwhosefragrancehadignitedhislust.Adistinguishedold ladywouldbeteasedforpastaffairs,andshewould,infrontofanamusedaudience, reproveanexloverforhisfoulsmellingsemen.Whileperformingthecollective plantationofriceintheswidden,amanwouldmockinglyaccusehisbrotherto consortwithhismotherinlawandejaculatingsomuchastomakethewholeplace slipperywithsemen.Listenerswouldbeinstitchesandcouldnotcatchtheirbreath duetotheextrememerrimentcausedbysuchwonderfullyamusinginventionsand otheroutrageousejaculations.Manyotheroccasionscallforfunandhilarity;when watchingacockfightmenshouttheirencouragementsinashrillvoice,gesticulate emphatically,contortthemselves,jumpupanddownandsoon.Butviolence,as withtheInuit,isneverfar.LikewiseaPalawaninformanttoldmenotlongago:If youarenotjoking,thenyouareangry(baqdikikemegluluy,kaluqmeiseg).

7Severalotherculturalcommunitiesinthesamearea,includingtheHanunooofMindoro(H.C.

Conklin,personalcommunication),alsoindulgeinobscenityandbawdyhumor.

 ThePalawanpeopleIhavestudiedovertheyears(Macdonald1977,2007)are indeedpeaceful,nonviolent,egalitarianintheextreme.Theyvalueselfcontrol,

14

permitnooutwardexpressionofnegativeemotions,especiallyanger.Similartothe Inuitconceptofnallik(seeabove)theirmostcentralmoralvalueiscompassion, ingasiq8,andtheytendtoorienttheirbehavior,especiallywhenitcomestosharing, accordingtosuchanorm.Theprofoundsimilaritybetweenthetwocultures, PalawanandInuit,goesbeyondasimpleresemblanceorsuperficialuniversalityof values.Ihypothesizethatitindexestheirmembershipinaspecificclassofhuman cultures. Goingbacktohumorandlaughterasastructuraldimensioninthismodeof relationship,Icouldbringinanotherpieceofevidencetosupportmythesis.The wayPalawanpeopleconductamarriageceremony(Macdonald1972,1974)isboth puzzlingandrevealing.Firstofallthereisanelementofbuffooneryand grotesquerieintheritualitselfatleastinthehighlands,nonIslamizedversionofit. Atonepointaprocessionofindividualsdisguisedingrotesqueaccoutrementwill circumambulatetheroomaroundthebrideandgroomwhoareseatedtogether (Macdonald1972).Thisissupposedtoenticelaughter.Butthisisnoteventhemain point.Thebulkofwhatwemaycalltheweddingceremonyconsistsinalengthy discussionbetweenrepresentativesofthegroomandrepresentativesofthebride.A centralissuefocusesonthemarriagepayment,orbrideprice.Asitturnsoutthisis alwayssettledinapreordainedmanner,bridepricesamountingtraditionallytoa limitednumberofitems(platesandotheritemsheirloomproperty)dependent uponthebirthorderofthebrideoronpreviousmarriagearrangements9.Thereis norealhagglingandinanycasethisaspectofthediscussionoccupiesasmall amountoftime.Thefirstandmajorpartofthediscussionisnothingbuta protractedjoke,orverbalplay.Representativesofthebride,inwhosehousethe
8Ingasiqhasalargesemanticfield,fromsympathy,topity,love,understanding,generosity,anda

generaldispositiontohelpandsuccor(Macdonald2007:136). 9Iamusingtheethnographicpresentforsomethingthatisundergoingimportanttransformations. Themonetaryvalueofthebridepricehasbecomeaverycrucialissueanditsamounthas significantlyincreased.TheparticularmarriageceremonyIamreferringto,tookplaceinthe highlandsintheearlyseventies.

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weddingtakesplace,wonderwhysomanypeoplehavegatheredintheirplace,who arethesestrangersandwhyhavetheycome?Isitwiththeintentionofwaginga war?Exterminatingeverybody,burningtheirhouses?No,exclaimthe representativesofthegroom,itiswiththemostpeacefulintentions.Thenwould retorttheformer,whyhavetheycome?Theyprobablylosttheirway?Alas,they (thebridespeople),areunabletoindicatetherightway,theycannotpointtothe rightdirection.Noexclaimthegroomsrepresentatives,nono!Theyarenotlost, theycamewithapurposeand,tosaythetruth,theyareactuallylookingfor something,andwhattheyareseekingisachicken.Ah,buttherearenochicken here,thepoultryhasbeendepleted,sosorry!Well,bychickentheymeana certainkindofchicken,actuallythelittlechickofKikilanganbrook.Ahso,by chickentheymeanagirl.Ah,buttherearenogirlshere,onlyonegirltheycan thinkofandalas,sheisunsuitableformarriage.Sheisstupid,lazy,cannotcook, etc.Itwouldbeunfairtoletanyonemarrysuchanincompetentwife.Towhichthe groomspeopleretortthattheydontcare,thegroomlovesherandiswillingtogive hislifeforher,etc.Andsogoestheverbalplay,mixinghumor,mockery,self disparagement,inadisplayofrhetoricalskillswherebyonepartyisforeverdodging therealquestion,andtheotheronemakinghispointpatientlyandwithgreat indirectness.Ihavesummarizedsomeofitinthebriefestmannerbuttheexchange lastforhours.ThePalawanlanguagecallsitaperibasa,orcourtesy.Itisawayto showrespectandanexerciseinhumor.Nowifweconsiderthefactthatmarriageis abouttheonlyeventinthelifecyclethatisritualizedtosomeextent,theonly occasionforafeastoutsidetheperiodicceremonieslinkedwiththericecycleand theseasonal/solarcycle,andinsumtheonlyceremonyratifyingasocialcontract atleastinthehighlandsonecanwonderatitsunseriouscharacter,itsplayful conduct,anditshumorouscontent10. FinallythereisanotherimportantremarkIhavetomakeconcerningtheparticular senseofhumordisplayedbyalmostallPalawanpeopleIknow,andthatconcerns 10Jokingrelationshipsasawaytoalleviatethetensionsurroundingmarriageandaffinalrelations amongtheSemaihasalsobenotedbyDentan(2004:180)

 somethingusuallynotmentionedforthereasonsIsuggestedabove,prudishness

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andadisdainforamusingaspectsofsociallife.Palawanpeople,menandwomen, arethrownintoundilutedmirthbythereleaseofintestinalgases,orfarting,known totheminthemostappositemannerastheanuslaughter,kesitetambut.Passing windisperformedpubliclyandtheauthorofthefartmakesapointtohave everyonenoticehisresoundingflatulence.Itsreleaseproducesjoyfulcomments.It entertainswithoutfail.Nowthepossibilityofpublicfarting,andthevarious meaningsattachedtoit,formoneofthemostrevealingcomplexoftraitsinany givenculture.Itsdeepconnectionwithlaughterandhumor,itssympatheticlink withanethosoffreedomandequality,itsjoyousmoodofanarchiccommunality, hasbeenunderstoodandexplainedbytheRussianthinkerandliterarycriticM. Bakhtininhispenetratingstudyofthemedievalcarnivalanditsattendant grotesqueries(Bakhtine1970).

LaughterandtheGrotesque
BakhtinsanalysisofmedievalandearlyRenaissancefolkcultureisastudyofthe imagerygeneratedbycarnivalsandtheexpressionitfoundintheworkofRabelais (Bakhtine1970).Firstofallcarnivalsandfeaststhatbelongedtothisclassof popularcollectiveevents,wereofconsiderableimportanceduringmedievaltimes andhugeamountsoftimeandenergyweredevotedtotheirpreparationand accomplishment.Thecarnivalworldwasaboundlessworldofhumorousforms opposedtotheserioustoneofmedievalandecclesiasticalculture.(Bakhtinquoted inClarkandHolquist1984:299300)Halloweenisapalecopy,enfeebledand watereddown,ofthecollective,deliriousandcosmicfrenzyofmedievalfeasts. Thesefeastswerecharacterizedbyacertainconceptionoflifeandofsociality.The grotesquewastheproperstyleandessenceofthespiritofcarnivalanditconcerned primarilythebody,itspresentationandthevaluesandideasattachedtoits functions.Thegrotesquebody,thebodyofthefolkcultureofcarnival,isendowed withpropertiesatcompleteoddswiththeofficialideologyofthemedievalChurch. Italsocontainsdefiningelementsintimatelyassociatedwithanotionofsociallifein completeoppositiontothehierarchicalorderedsocialstructureofthetime.The

 carnivalspiritisfundamentallyopposedtoallhierarchiesinepistemology,all canonsanddogmas,forincarnivaleverythingisconstantlymovingand

17

changing.(ClarkandHolquist1984:310)Carnivalswerethusanexpressionofan antiofficialideologyandculturalanthropologistshavelongrecognizedtheirstatus asritualsofreversal(Turner1977).Wewouldsaytodaythatthegrotesqueimage ofthebodyprojectedincarnivalwasapoliticalstatementandwewouldspeakof thepoliticsofthebody.Carnivalwasaminimallyritualizedantiritual,afestive celebrationoftheother,andagapinthefabricofsociety.(ClarkandHolquist 1984:310).Itwasanislandintheseaofhistory(301).Carnivalincludeda numberofimportantelementswhichwecanfindintheethosofanarchicand gregariouscommunities,thesharingoffoodbeingone.Italsoandmostprominently sawhumorandlaughterascrucialdimensionsofaphilosophyofnatureandsociety, oftheorganic,human,spiritualandcosmicuniverse.Aprimaryelementincarnival wasindeedtheunabasheddisplayofbodilyfunctions,includingdefecation, copulation,andevenlaborandbirth(311) Thegrotesquebodyisdefinedalongseveralmainlines.Firstofallitisanopen body,abodyfullofopenings,suchasthemouth,anus,vagina.Itisalsoabodywith protrudingparts,nose,breasts,phallus,bigbelly.Itisseeninitsdigestiveand excretiveoperations,itsvitalandcreativefunctionsofcopulationandbirthing (Bakhtine1970:35).Itistheoppositeofasmooth,sealed,closedbody.Inthebodily imageryofcarnivalandofRabelaispoetry,thelowerpartofitstopographyisgiven prominence(genitalorgans,behind,anus),aswellastheinsideofthebody, (intestines,stomach,uterus,bladder).Bodilyfluids(urine,semen,sweat, excrements,saliva)areinconspicuousdisplay.Assuchthebodilyimageisin completedenialofaverticalhierarchy.Thesocalledsuperiorpartsorfunctions (thehead,theface,thedisembodiedmind)donottakethelead.Insteadofavertical andstatichierarchyofpartsandfunctions,ahorizontalandcreative,dynamic processtakesplace.Insteadofanupperandalower,wehaveabeforeandan after,aninsideandanoutside.Oneaspectofthisnewsituationisthe replacementoftheupperpartsofthebodybythelowerparts,thefacebecoming

 ass,themouthanus.ThisbringsusbacktothePalawannotionoffartingasthe assholeslaughter.Fartingisindeedincludedinthelistoflifeaffirmingbodily

18

functions.InanepisodeofRabelaisGargantuaandPantagruel,BookII,acharacter isbroughtbacktolifebyPanurge.Thefirstsignofhisreturntolifeandproofof recoveryisnotbreathingoreating,butfarting.Fartingthusappearsasthereal symboloflife(Bakhtine1970:380). Thebodythusconceivedinitsgrotesqueontology,isalsoandprimarilyajoyous andfearlessbody,anentitywhoseprimaryenergyistheforceoflaughter,which supersedeshumanhierarchiesbutalsocountermandsabasiccosmicfearof universaldestruction.Bakhtinseeslaughterasendowedwithauniversalvalueof truthagainstthestupidsimplificationofasupposedseriouslife,anaffirmationof vitalandcreativeenergywhichisdeeplyambiguous,ambivalent,complex,and regenerative(Bakhtine1970:127).Laughterandmerrimentstandincomplete oppositiontotheseriousattitudeofChristianpenitents,ofthepiousChristianspirit ofconstantatonementandChristianityhasofcourseattemptedtobanlaughterand humorfromthelifeofthefaithful.ThepopularnovelTheNameoftheRoseby UmbertoEco,andthefilmbasedonit,haveexposedthepublictotheideaofthe subversivepoweroflaughteranditsattemptederadicationbytheclergy. Fundamentalistreligiousmovementsdetestanyformofmirthandgaiety.The grotesquespiritandhilariousmadnessofcarnivalarethusintimatelyassociated withaspiritoffestivejoyandrestsonthedisplayofbodilyfunctionsandbodily substancespositivelyvaluedaslifegiving.Thesubversivequalityoflaughterinthe contextoffolkcarnivalandgrotesqueartistryisanotheraspectofthesame phenomenonbecauseitelevatesthelowlyanddebasestheexalted.Theseriousness offunisthusvindicatedandtheessentialconnectionoflaughterwiththelower partsofthebodyandtheirexcretiveandassimilatorypropertiesisamply demonstrated. Thereishoweveranotherimportantdimensionalreadymentioned,theambivalent andcomplexnatureoflaughter,andacaveatmustbepostedatthisjuncture. Insteadoffosteringconvivialenergyandafriendlycommunionofsouls,derogatory

 andsarcasticlaughtercanpromoteenmityandhatred.ThePalawanideas concerningthisphenomenonarealsoagoodexampleofitsambiguousnature. Laughteraswehaveseenandparticularlytheobsceneandscatologicalaspectof laughterareassociatedwithjoyfulcommunalityandasenseofegalitarian

19

brotherhood.ButinPalawancosmology,aswellasinthecosmologyofneighboring peopleinSoutheastAsia,laughingcanbehighlydangerousbecauseitirritates Thunderhimself.Theanthropomorphicfigureofthiscelestialphenomenon punishespeoplelaughingexcessivelyorforthewrongreasons(Macdonald1988,). Therearethusatleasttwokindsoflaughter,onebetweenhumansthatisalmost mandatoryandasignofsociability,theotherthatmeddleswithcosmicforcesand thatisdangerousandforbidden.

Conclusion
ThewholepointthatItriedtomakeinthispaperisthatthroughouttheworldand incompletelydifferentcultures,undervariedandverydissimilarappearances, somethingsareverysimilarandamongthesethings,atendencyforpeaceful, serene,andjoyousconnectionbetweenindividuals,withanassumptionofstrict equalitybetweenthem.Therearesuchislandsintheseaofsociety(AA,Tea Ceremony),history(Carnivals)andviolence(peacefulsocietiesamongpredatory states).Ifcertainrequirementsaremet,suchasanassertionofequalitythrough humororsharingoffood/beverage,orbyothermeanssuchasanonymityand humbledemeanor,thenwecansaythatconditionsoffelicityobtainforacertain formofaggregation.Isupposetheseconditionsareatleastnecessary,ifmaybenot sufficient,toinsureameasureofstabilityandpermanenceforaggregationsthus formed. ThedifferentfactorsIhaveexamined(anonymity,humility,humor,et.)producea certainatmosphereormoodtowhichIhaveappliedthetermharmony,aconcept whichincludesacertainnumberofsemanticdimensions(Macdonald2008a).Oneis thesenseoforder,althoughnotaformalstaticordersuchasinahierarchy,northe mechanicalorderofanautomobileengine,butaneverchanging,anorganiclifelike sortoforder.Seconditmayhavethesenseithasinmusic:theverticaldimensionof

20

communality.Thevertical,asBakhtinshorizontaldimension(seeabove),arejust crudetopologicalapproximationsofsomethingthatshouldprobablybedefinedin anotherlanguage,mathematicalmaybeor,moreappropriately,musical.Itisa polyphonyofvoicessingingtogether,andforthisreasonamongothers,harmony impliescomplexity. Whenfacedwithharmonyinhumans,amemberofasocialsystem,brainwashed sinceearlychildhoodinthereligionofrankandcorporation,atalltimewedged betweentworungsofthesocialladder,intentonshowingasmoothandsealed, exterior,convincedthatsexisoffending,andwithadeeplyrootedbeliefinthe virtuesofselfaffirmation,apersonlikethisonemayhaveadifficulttime understandingwhatisgoingonintheharmoniousworldofhumblepeople,andis unabletoimmediatelycomprehendthevalueanddignitytheydisplay.Letme illustratethispointthus.ThePalawanpeoplewereextremelyshyandstillretreatin thefaceofanythreatoraggression:theyrunawayandthinkthatflyingisbetter thanfighting.Anearlyobserver(Whitehead1893)describedthemasrunning awaylikefools.Theyalsohaveagreatsenseofhumorbutonethatmightnotlook quitepalatabletosomeofus:theyliketofartinpublicandmentionsexualmatters unabashedly.Alsotheytendtoadegreetoavoidbeingindebt.Asaresultthank youhasbeenarecentlylearnedformulaofpoliteness.LiketheInuitcompanionsof Freuchen(Macdonald2008,n.14)theyareapttoagreethatgiftsmakeslaves.But preciselybecausetheyfart,neversaythankyouandrunawaylikefools,theyare suchfinespecimensofthehumanrace:joyous,equalandfree. REFERENCES Ager,LynnPrice 1976 EskimoDanceandCulturalValuesinanAlaskanVillage.Dance ResearchJournal8(1):712. Alcoholics,Anonymous 1952 TwelveStepsandTwelveTraditions.NewYork:GeneralService Office.

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