Compressible Flow
These presentations are prepared by Dr. Cneyt Sert Department of Mechanical Engineering Middle East Technical University
Ankara, Turkey
csert@metu.edu.tr
Please ask for permission before using them. You are NOT allowed to modify them. 4-1
> 5.0
is also a function of temperature, but for moderate temperature changes it can be taken as constant. In this course well take as constant. Change in internal energy between two states is (considering constant ) 2 1 = (2 1 )
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1.005
0.718
0.287
Specific heat ratio is used frequently in compressible flow studies = which has a value of 1.4 for air.
Combining the above relations we can also obtain = , 1 = 1
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For an adiabatic (no heat transfer) and frictionless flow, which is known as isentropic flow, entropy remains constant. Exercise : For isentropic flow of an ideal gas with constant specific heat values, derive the following commonly used relations, known as isentropic relations
2 1
/(1)
2 = 1
2 = 1
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Speed of Sound ()
Speed of sound is the rate of propagation of a pressure pulse (wave) of infinitesimal strength through a still medium (a fluid in our case). It is a thermodynamic property of the fluid. For air at standard conditions, sound moves with a speed of = 343 /
http://paws.kettering.edu/~drussell/demos.html
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Piston is pushed into the fluid with an infinitesimal velocity of A pressure wave of infinitesimal strength will form and itll travel in the gas with the speed of sound .
As it passes over the gas particles it will create infinitesimal property changes. Moving wave front
+ + + = 0
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Stationary wave front Consider a control volume enclosing the stationary wave front. The flow is one dimensional and steady.
out
= + ( )
= +
Negligibly small term
Linear momentum equation in the flow direction is (consider only pressure forces, but no viscous forces since they are negligibly small for the process of interest)
= + = ( ) = =
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Exercise : In deriving speed of sound equation, we did not make use of the energy equation. Show that it gives the same result. Exercise : What is the speed of sound for a perfectly incompressible fluid. Exercise : Show that speed of sound for an ideal gas is equal to =
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All waves concentrate on a plane passing through the moving source creating a Mach wave, across which there is a significant pressure change.
Mach wave separates the filed into two as zone of silence and zone of action.
Zone of action
Zone of silence
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Mach cone divides the field into zones of action and silence.
Half angle of the Mach cone is called the Mach angle .
Zone of action
Zone of silence
>
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Exercise : A supersonic airplane is traveling at an altitude of 4 . The noise generated by the plane at point A reached the observer on the ground at point B after 20 . Assuming isothermal atmosphere, determine a) Mach number of the airplane b) velocity of the airplane c) distance traveled by the airplane before the observer hears the noise d) temperature of the atmosphere
= 5 A = 4
http://en.wikipedia.org
B
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Flow and fluid properties inside this nozzle change due to Cross sectional area change
Frictional effects
Heat transfer effects
In ME 306 well only study these flows to be one dimensional and consider only the effect of area change, i.e. assume isentropic flow.
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Stagnation Enthalpy
The sum +
2 2
stagnation enthalpy
It is called stagnation enthalpy because a stagnation point has zero velocity and the enthalpy of the gas is equal to 0 at such a point.
Fluid in this large reservoir is almost stagnant. This reservoir is said to be at stagnation state.
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Stagnation State
Stgnation state is a reference state used in compressible flow calculations. It is the state achieved if a fluid at any other state is brought to rest isentropically.
Isentropic deceleration
Isentropic deceleration
Isentropic deceleration
=+
2 2
= 0 =
2 2
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2 (0 ) = 2
2 0 = + 2 During the isentropic deceleration temperature of the gas increases by
2 . 2
Exercise : An airplane is crusing at a speed of 900 / at an altitude of 10 . Atmospheric air at 60 comes to rest at the tip of its pitot tube. Determine the temperature rise of air.
Read about heating of space shuttle during its reentry to the earths atmosphere. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_thermal_protection_system
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0.5
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Compressible Incompressible
0 1.6 1.4
1.2
1.0 0
0.2
0.4 0.6
0.8
1
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+ + + + +
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< 0
> 0
> 0
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Sonic flow may occur at the throat. or at the exit of a subsonic nozzle or a supersonic diffuser < 1 Sonic flow may occur at these exits.
> 1
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Exercise : When subsonic flow is accelerated in a nozzle, supersonic flow can never be achieved. At most Mach number can be unity at the exit. What happens if we add another converging part to the exit of such a nozzle?
< 1
= 1
< 1 =?
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Critical State
Critical state is the special state where Mach number is unity. It is a useful reference state, similar to stagnation state. It is useful even if there is no actual critical state in a flow. It is shown with an asterisk, like , , etc.
Ratios derived in Slide 4-23 can be written using the critical state
/(1) /(1)
1 = 1+ 2 2
1 = 1+ 2 = 1
1 =1+ 2 2
1 = 1+ 2 2
1/(1)
1 =1+ 2
1 = 1+ 2
1/(1)
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1.5
1.0 0.5
Adapted from Fox, McDonald and Pritchards textbook = 1.4
0 0.5
1 1.5 2
2.5
3
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Exercise : A converging duct is fed with air from a large reservoir where the temperature and pressure are 350 K and 200 kPa. At the exit of the duct, crosssectional area is 0.002 2 and Mach number is 0.5. Assuming isentropic flow
a)
Exercise : Air is flowing isentropically in a diverging duct. At the inlet of the duct, pressure, temperature and velocity are 40 kPa, 220 K and 500 m/s, respectively. Inlet and exit areas are 0.002 2 and 0.003 2.
a) Determine the Mach number, pressure and temperature at the exit.
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Shock Waves
Waves are disturbances (property changes) moving in a fluid. Sound wave is a weak wave, i.e. property changes across it are infinitesimally small.
They can be normal (perpendicular to the flow direction) or oblique (inclined to the flow direction). In ME 306 well consider normal shock waves for 1D flows inside channels.
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Normal shock wave in a supersonic nozzle. Flow is from left to right. Extra waves are due to surface roughness Oblique shock wave ahead of a bullet moving at a supersonic speed
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Consider a piston pushed with a finite velocity in a cylinder filled with still gas.
We can decompose pistons motion into a series of infinitesimally small disturbances. Weak compression waves will emerge from the piston, one after the other.
+ +
= 0
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2 > 1
A third one, which is not shown, will move even faster and catch the first two waves.
At the end all the waves will accumulate into a strong wave of finite strength.
Weak expansion waves thatll be generated by pulling the piston to the left will not form such a strong wave. Strong wave + + = 0
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Due to very sudden and finite property changes, the process across the wave is
considered to be non-isentropic. Therefore there are two different stagnation states, state 0 for the flow before the
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0,
During adiabatic deceleration entropy increases. But the achieved adiabatic stagnation state will have the same stagnation enthalpy 0 and therefore same stagnation temperature 0 as isentropic stagnation state. Any state
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Continuity :
Momentum : Energy : Second Law :
= =
= 0 = + >
2 2 2
where
= =
= +
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Temperature change :
1+
1 2 2 2 1 2 1 + 1 2 2( 1)
Pressure change :
2 1 2 = + 1 + 1
2 ( + 1) = 2 2 + ( 1)
Density change :
Velocity change :
=
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2 1 2 + 1 + 1
0 = 0 0 = 0
Entropy change :
According to the last equation for all known values of entropy increase occurs only if > 1. Therefore a shock wave can occur only if the incoming flow is supersonic.
Exercise : Show that flow after the shock should be subsonic, i.e. < 1
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, , 0
decreases
, , , ,
0
increases
remains the same
3
2 1 0
Kinetic energy of the fluid after the shock wave is smaller than the one that would be obtained by a reversible compression between the same pressure limits. Lost kinetic energy is the reason of
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2.5
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Exercise : Supersonic air flow inside a diverging duct is slowed down by a normal
shock wave. Mach number at the inlet and exit of the duct are 2.0 and 0.3. Ratio of the exit to inlet cross sectional areas is 2. Pressure at the inlet of the duct is 40 kPa. Determine the pressure after the shock wave and at the exit of the duct.
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Back pressure is adjusted using a vacuum pump and a valve to obtain different flow
conditions inside the nozzle. Well differentiate between exit pressure and back pressure . They are often
0 0
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3 : Critical ( = )
4 : <
Choked Flow
Flow inside the converging nozzle always remain subsonic. For the subcritical regime as we decrease mass flow rate increases. State shown with * is the critical state. When is lowered to the critical value , exit Mach number reaches to 1 and flow is said to be choked.
If is lowered further, flow remains choked. Pressure and Mach number at the exit
does not change. Mass flow rate through the nozzle does not change. For < , gas exits the nozzle as a supercritical jet with > . It undergoes through a number of alternating expansion waves and shocks and its cross sectional area periodically becomes thinner and thicker.
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Variation of with
3 2
Case 1 is the no flow case. From case 1 to case 3 drops and increases. Case 3 is the critical case with minimum possible and maximum possible .
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0
1 : No flow ( = 0) 2 : Subsonic Flow 3 : Choked flow ( = 1) 4 : Flow with shock 5y : Shock at the exit
Same
6 : Overexpansion 7 : Design condition
8 : Underexpansion
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Variation of with
1
2
7 5y 3 8 6 4 2 1 0
5x
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= 0.0022 2 0 = 318
= 0.0038 2 = 30
0 = 327
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1
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