WHATS SO HARD ABOUT SEX EQUALITY?

: NATURE, CULTURE, AND SOCIAL ENGINEERING

Boston University School of Law Working Paper No. 10-30 (Tuesday, September 21, 2010)

Linda C. McClain

This paper can be downloaded without charge at: http://www.bu.edu/law/faculty/scholarship/workingpapers/2010.html

Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1680496

 Whatssohardaboutsexequality?:Nature,culture,andsocialengineering From:TRANSCENDINGTHEBOUNDARIESOFLAW: GENERATIONSOFFEMINISMANDLEGALTHEORY

(MarthaAlbertsonFineman,ed.,Routledge2010 Chapter5,pp6682)

* LindaC.McClain INTRODUCINGTHEPROBLEM IntheUnitedStates,evidenceofthesuccessoflegalfeminismsequalityprojectisvisibleinthe constitutionalcommitmenttoequalopportunityandprohibitionsagainstlegislatingbasedonfixed notionsaboutgenderroles(Case2009;UnitedStatesv.Virginia1996)andinthemovetowardgreater sexequalityinfamilylawandotherareasofprivatelaw(McClain2006).However,sexinequality persists,andsubstantiveequalityremainselusive(Fineman2001,2009;McClainandGrossman2009). Socialcooperationbetweenwomenandmeninvariousdomainsofsocietyisassumedtobea fundamentalandnecessarybuildingblockofsociety,butitproveshardtosecureontermsofequality. Whyissexequalitysohardtoachieve?Oneansweristhatfeministquestsforequalityinprivate

andpubliclifeareaformofmisguidedsocialengineeringthatignoresnaturalsexdifference.Iargue thatequalitywithinandamongfamiliesshouldhelpguidefamilylawandpolicy,supportingamore inclusive,egalitariandefinitionofmarriageandmorerespectforfamilydiversity(McClain2006). Prominentfiguresinthemarriagemovementcritiquethisargumentforenlistingfamilylawschanneling functionforfeministequalitygoalsbutresistingmarriageschannelingfunctionofsecuringresponsible paternalinvestment(Browning2007). Thischapterexaminesargumentsthatnatureandcultureconstrainfeministlawreform.

Appealstonaturearguethatbrainscienceandevolutionarypsychologyfindsalientdifferencesbetween womenandmen,limitingwhatsocialengineeringcanachieveinfosteringsexequalityorreforming familylaw.Appealstoculturearguethatconstructionsofmasculinityandfemininityaretenacious; challengingthemthreatenswomensandmenssenseofidentityandcausesresistancetoequality. Contemporarysocietymayespouseacommitmenttoagenderneutralsociety,butmensand

* LindaC.McClainisaProfessorofLawandPaulM.SiskindResearchScholarattheBostonUniversitySchoolofLaw.

Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1680496

 womensunofficialdesirestandsintheway(Mansfield2006:13).Thesecontemporaryclaimsmay signalanewformofthesamenessdifferencedebate.Assuch,theyinvitescrutinybylegalfeminists. Oftenatworkindiscussionsaboutsexinequalityisthenotionofaproperequilibriumbetween

thesexesthatisupsetwhensexroleschangeordifferencesareminimized.However,evenascritiques offeministsocialengineeringinvokenatureandculture,problemsposedbynaturefeatureasareason toembracesocialengineeringintheformofthesocialinstitutionofmarriage.Thisviewofnatureis distinctfromtheconservativereligiousargumentthatbecausemarriagethenaturalfamilyreflects thecreatedorder,feministsocialengineeringofthefamilyisdangerous(McClain2009). APPEALSTONATURE Maleandfemalebrainsandevolutionarypsychology Theappealtonatureasaconstraintonequalityenlistsbrainscienceandevolutionarypsychology, whichreportedlyfindsalientdifferencesbetweenwomenandmen,linkedtodifferentreproductive biologyandreproductivestrategies.Thesedifferenceslimitwhatsocialengineeringcanachieve. Inthe1990s,aflurryofbooks,includingRobertWrightsTheMoralAnimal(1995)andDavid

BusssTheEvolutionofDesire(1994)introducedbasicconceptsofevolutionarypsychologyand sociobiology,proposingthatscienceshedlightonsexdifference,whymenandwomenhaddifferent viewsabouttheharmofrapeandsexualharassment,andwhytheymadedifferentchoicesaboutwork familybalance(Wright1994).Wrightcriticizedfeministlegaltheoristsforavoidingscience.Heargued that: [M]anyofthedifferencesbetweenmenandwomenaremorestubbornthanmostfeminists wouldlike,andcomplicatethequestforeventhedefinitionofsocialequalitybetweenthe sexes. (Wright1994:34) Intheearlytwentyfirstcentury,brainsciencerivetspopularattention.Onceagain,evolutionpresents limitstosocialengineeringandaffirmssexdifference.EnthusingaboutneuropsychiatristLouann Brizendinesworkinpopularscience,TheFemaleBrain(2006),journalistDavidBrooksopines,Once radicalsdreamedofnewwaysofliving,butnowhappinessseemstoconsistoflivinginharmonywith thepatternsthatnatureandevolutionlaiddownlong,longago(2006:14).
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Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1680496

 Whatarethesedifferencesandwhatpatternsdotheyprescribe?Brizendine(2006:1)declares,

morethan99percentofmaleandfemalegeneticcodingisexactlythesame,buttheonepercent differenceinfluenceseverysinglecellinourbodies.Theinsideflapofthebookcoverpromises neurologicalexplanationsforsuchsexdifferencesas: Awomanusesabout20,000wordsperday,whileamanusesabout7,000. Awomanknowswhatpeoplearefeeling,whileamancantspotanemotionunlesssomebody criesorthreatensbodilyharm. Thoughtsaboutsexenterawomansbrainonceeverycoupleofdaysbutenteramansbrain aboutonceeveryminute. Brizendineturnstoevolutionarytheorytoexplaintherootsofbraindifferences.Howeversheisnot quietistabouthumannature.Biologyneednotbedestinyifweunderstandhowevolutionary,biological, andculturalforcesshapeus(2006).Socialengineeringinformedbybiologyholdspromise: Biologypowerfullyaffectsusbutdoesnotlockinourreality.Wecanalterthatrealityanduse ourintelligenceanddeterminationbothtocelebrateand,whennecessary,tochangetheeffects ofsexhormonesonbrainstructure,behavior,reality,creativityanddestiny. (Brizendine2006:6) Whatdoesthisinterplayofbiologyandhumanwillsuggestaboutsocialcooperationontermsof equality?IfocusonBrizendinesuseofevolutionarytheorytointerpretbraindifferenceandits implicationsforintimateandfamilylife.IdonotassesswhetherBrizendinegetsthescienceofbrain differenceright,thoughsomescientistsargueshedoesnot(Liberman2006;RiversandBarnett2007). Scientistscautionagainstlettingdubioussciencegivecredibilitytostereotypesandignoredecadesof legitimatefindingsaboutmaleandfemalesimilarity(RiversandBarnett2007).Inflatedclaimsof genderdifferences,theywarn,havecoststochildren,adults,andsociety,astheyreifystereotypes, limitopportunity,andignorethatmalesandfemalesaresimilaronmost,butnotall,psychological variables(Hyde2005:58189).Theseconcernsechoquestionsaboutsameness,difference,and

 stereotypeslongposedbyfeministlegaltheory(MississippiUniversityforWomenv.Hogan1982; Littleton1987). STONEAGEBRAINS Contemporaryfemales,Brizendine(2006:42)asserts,inherittheancientcircuitryofourmost successfulforemothers.Teenagegirlsdriveforsocialconnectionwitheachotherhasbiologicaland hormonalreasons.Intimacyactivatesthepleasurecentersinagirlsbrain,triggeringanearorgasmic majordopamineandoxytocinrush(37).Girlsaremotivatedonamolecularandaneurologicallevel toeaseandevenpreventsocialconflictandtomaintainingtherelationshipatallcosts(40).These findingssoundsimilartothosemadebyCarolGilliganandhercolleagues(1990)onhowgirlsworkto maintainconnection. Connectionamongfemaleshasevolutionaryrootsasastrategyofprotectionagainstaggressive

males,evidentinstudiesoffemalemammalsthatdevelopstressresponsestotendandbefriendand toformsocialgroupsthatpromotesafetyandreducedistressfortheselfandoffspring(Brizendine 2006:42).Thesefemalenetworksalsoshareinfantcare,informationaboutwheretofindfood,and modelmaternalbehaviorforyoungerfemales(4243).Socialconnectedness,thus,contributesto reproductivesuccess(43).Todaysteenfemales,astheyreachoptimalfertility,undertakesimilar strategies(43). Competitionisashardwiredascooperation.Brizendine(2006:54)attributesthebiologyof

meangirlstheharshtacticsofteengirlcliquestoasurvivalstrategyofsexualcompetitionfor thebestmalemates,abiologicalimperativetocompeteforsexualattractiveness.Success,forboth sexes,requiressomeaggression,andrelevanthormonelevelsriseduringpuberty(55). OurStoneAgebrainalsoshapesmateselection,sex,andmotherhood(60).Brizendinerepeats

evolutionarypsychologysfamiliarstoryofthemalewhochasesandthefemalewhochooses,claiming thatitisnotsexstereotyping,butthebrainarchitectureoflove,engineeredbythereproductive winnersinevolution(5960).Contemporarycouplesproceeddownanancientpairbondingpath, overwhichtheyhavelittlecontrol(60). BrizendinedrawsonDavidBusssinfluentialwork(1994)onthedifferentqualitieswomenand

menseekinmates.Womenarelessconcernedwithapotentialhusbandsvisualappealandmore interestedinhismaterialresourcesandsocialstatusandpreferaslightlyolderpartner(Brizendine

 2006:61).Scientistsconcludethattheseuniversalmatepreferencesarepartoftheinherited architectureofthefemalebrainsmatechoicesystemandarepresumedtoserveapurpose(62). Whatpurpose?BrizendineturnstoevolutionarybiologyscholarRobertTrivers,whoexplains

femalemateselectionasasoundinvestmentstrategystemmingfromtheirlimitednumberofeggsand greaterinvestmentthanmeninbearingandraisingchildren.Amancanimpregnateawomanwithone actofintercourseandwalkaway;awomanisleftwithninemonthsofpregnancy,theperilsof childbirth,monthsofbreastfeeding,andtryingtoensurethatchildssurvival(Brizendine2006:62). Ancientnecessitiesledfemalestoseeklongtermmalepartnerstoensurereproductivesuccess;those whofacedthesechallengesalonewerelesslikelytohavebeensuccessfulinpropagatingtheirgenes (62).Brizendineisskepticalaboutwhethercontemporarysinglemotherhood...willsucceed,noting that,eventoday,insomeprimitivecultures,afatherspresenceenhancesachildssurvivalrates, makingafemalessafestbetalongtermmalepartnertoofferprotectionandimprovedaccessto food,shelterandotherresources(62).Ineffect,womensneedforprotectionandprovisionexplains thesocalledsexcontractpositedbyevolutionarytheorists. Mensancientbraincircuitry,accordingtoBuss,leadsthemtoseekwiveswhoarephysically

attractive,betweenagestwentyandforty,andwithclearskin,brighteyes,fulllips,shinyhair,and curvy,hourglassfigures(Brizendine2008:63).Thesetraitsarestrongvisualmarkersof[female] fertility,whichoffersmenthebiggestreproductivepayofffortheirinvestment(63,emphasisin original).Butthemostreproductivelysuccessfulmalesalsoneedtopickwomenwhowillmateonly withthem,ensuringtheirpaternity(64). Mensconcernwithpaternitysupposedlyexplainstheirconcernwithwomenssocial

reputation.Brizendineexplainsthatifawomanhadsexwithamanonafirstdateorshowedoff aboutformerbedpartners,hisStoneAgebrainmighthavejudgedthatshewouldbeunfaithfulorhad abadreputation(64).Butmaleseductionandabandonmentisanoldproblem(6465).Thus,male andfemalereproductivestrategiesputthematodds.Evolution,ineffect,explainsthesexualdouble standard.Highpaternalinvestmentrequiresmenscertaintyofpaternity. However,thismodelsuggeststhatmenhavelittletoloseinrandomandcasualsexual

encounters.Whywouldnttheycareaboutanypotentialoffspringtheyfather,iftheirstrategyisto maximizetheirreproductivesuccess?Thepremiseimpliesthatifmenspreadaroundenoughgenes, eveniftheydonotpersonallyinvestinparentalcareforalloffspring,somemaysurviveduetothe mothersefforts.

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 Malesexualjealousy,thus,hasevolutionaryrootsandadaptivefunctionspreventing

infidelityandensuringpaternity(Buss1994:12529;Posner1992:97;Wright2005:6672);italsohas enormouscosts,evidentindomesticviolence(Buss1994).Drawingonevolutionaryscience,Judge RichardPosner(1992:97,112)arguesthebiologyofsexexplainsmensmateguardingbehaviorssuch asphysicalsequestrationofwives,disparagementoffemalesexuality,andfemalegenitalmutilation. Thesexesareinconflictratherthanincooperation;thesemalebehaviorssubvertfemalechoice(Batten 1994). EVOLUTIONARYPSYCHOLOGYANDMARRIAGELAWANDPOLICY Twowaysevolutionarypsychologyandsociobiologyfeatureincontemporarydiscussionsoffamilylaw andpolicyare(1)argumentsaboutwhypromotinghealthymarriageandrestoringamarriage cultureareanappropriatetaskforgovernment;and(2)argumentsagainstredefiningmarriageto includesamesexmarriage.1Thisembraceofsocialengineeringisintriguing:becausethesocial institutionofmarriageisnecessarytoaddressbasicproblemspresentedbynature,lawandculture shouldreinforceit.Marriageisfundamental,yetfragile.Thus,marriagemovement2authorscriticize worklikemineforignoringsexdifferenceandthepurposesofmarriage(Browning2007). Theseauthorsarguethatmarriagecivilizesmenbychannelingthemintosociallyproductive

rolesasfathersandhusbands(McClain2006).Marriageaddressesmensinclinationtowardprocreating withouttakingresponsibilityforchildrenandwomensinclinationtowardprocreatingandrearing children,evenintheabsenceofadequateresourcesandcommitmentbyfathers(Browningetal.2000; McClain2006).Marriageisthesocialinstitutionthatuniquelyaddressestheregulationof heterosexualityanditsprocreativeconsequences,ensuringthatchildrenhaveamotherandafatherto careforthem(Blankenhorn2007). Themarriagemovementappealstoevolutionarypsychologysaccountofmensandwomens

differentialinvestmentinoffspringandconflictingreproductivestrategiestoexplainsocietysvital interestinmarriage.Marriageclosesthisgapbetweenamanssexualandfatheringcapacities (CoalitionforMarriage,FamiliesandCouplesEducationetal.2000:9).NationalMarriageProject

1 Anotherexampleistheargumentagainstmovingbeyondmarriagetorecognizealterativelegalformsanddeemphasizethe conjugalmarriagemodel. TheInstituteforAmericanValues,foundedbyDavidBlankenhorn,isacentralorganizationinthemarriagemovement.

 DirectorDavidPopenoe(2001)testifiedinacongressionalhearingonmarriagepromotionthatthe fatherchildbondisweakerthanthemotherchildbondandthatmen,naturally,tendtostrayfrom mothersandchildrenwithoutthecommitmentofmarriage. Arationalethatmarriagemovementauthorsofferforlimitingmarriagetoonemanandone

womanismarriagesroleinensuringmaternalandpaternalinvestmentinchildren.Thisargument stressesfamilylawschannelingfunction(McClain2007;Schneider1992)andwarnsagainstaltering marriagessocialmeaning.Thisargumenthasmigratedintoamicibriefsandsomejudgesopinionsin litigationoverchallengesbysamesexcouplestostatemarriagelaws. OneexampleisadissentinGoodridgev.DepartmentofPublicHealth(2003),wherethe

MassachusettsSupremeJudicialCourtopenedthedoortosamesexmarriage.TheGoodridgemajority rejectedthestatesargumentthatbecauseprocreationwasthecentralpurposeofmarriageexcluding samesexcouplesfrommarriagewasrational.Itidentifiedexclusiveandpermanentcommitment, ratherthanprocreation,asmarriagesindispensablefeature(Goodridge2003:961).Themajorityargued thatthestatehadfacilitatedavenuesotherthanmaritalsexforbringingchildrenintoafamily(961 62).Dissenting,JusticeCordycontendedthattheinstitutionofmarriagehassystematicallyprovidedfor theregulationofheterosexualbehavior,broughtordertotheresultingprocreation,andensureda stablefamilystructureinwhichchildrenwillbereared,educated,andsocialized(995).Althoughin contemporarysocietyheterosexualintercourse,procreation,andchildcarearenotnecessarily conjoined,anorderlysocietyrequiressomemechanismforcopingwiththefactthatsexual intercoursecommonlyresultsinpregnancyandchildbirth(995). Theinstitutionofmarriageis,ineffect,aformofsocialengineeringthatfillsavoidinnature:a

processforcreatingarelationshipbetweenthemanandawomanastheparentsofaparticularchild (Goodridge2003:996).Themarriagemovementagreesthatmarriageresolvesthebiologicallybased sexualasymmetrybetweenthesexesandtheproblematicoffatherhoodbymeetingthemothers andchildsneedforamateandfatherandgivingmenafamilyrole.Ithelpscreateagreaterequality betweenparentsthannaturealonecansustain(InstituteforAmericanValues2006:15). Regulatingtheconsequencesofheterosexualityalsofeaturesinthemajorityandconcurring

opinionsinHernandezv.Robles(2006),whereNewYorkshighcourtupheldasconstitutionalexcluding samesexcouplesfrommarriage.Themajoritystatedthatthelegislaturecouldrationallyconcludethat samesexcouplesdonotneedmarriageasmuchasheterosexualsdobecausetheyarelesssexually unruly,andtheirsexualunionsdonotnaturallyhaveprocreativeconsequences.Moreover,themajority

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 arguedthatsincemostchildrenarebornasaresultofheterosexualrelationships,whicharetoooften casualortemporary,thestatecouldchoosetoofferaninducementmarriageanditsattendant benefitstooppositecouplesmakingalongtermcommitmenttoeachother(Hernandez2006:7). Bycontrast,becausesamesexcouplesmustdeliberatelyplanparenthood,theyandtheir

childrendonotneedtheaddedsecurityandstabilitymarriageaffordsbecausetheyaremorelikelyto havefamilystability(Hernandez2006:7).Thisapparentreversalofpastprejudicesabouthomosexuals aspromiscuousandirresponsibleledlawprofessorKenjiYoshino(2006b:A19)toquipthatgaysand lesbiansaretoogoodformarriage. Marriagemovementargumentsaboutconjugalmarriagesevolutionarysignificanceand

fragilityalsofeatureinLewisv.Harris(2005),wheretheAppellateDivisionofNewJerseyrejectedthe constitutionalchallengebroughtbyseveralsamesexcouples.3JudgeParrillo,concurring,wrotethatthe purposeofmarriageisnottomandateprocreationbuttocontrolorameliorateitsconsequencesand thatthedeeplogicofgendershouldremainasanecessarycomponentofmarriage(Lewis2005: 27678).QuotingmarriagemovementscholarDanielCere,ParrillocontendedthatGoodridges characterizationoftheessenceofmarriageasapermanentandexclusivecommitmentmissesthat, historically,marriagehasembraced: thefundamentalfacetsof[traditional]conjugallife:thefactofsexualdifference;theenormous tideofheterosexualdesireinhumanlife,themassivesignificanceofmalefemalebondingin humanlife;theprocreativityofheterosexualbonding;theuniquesocialecologyofheterosexual parentingwhichbondschildrentotheirbiologicalparents;andtherichgenealogicalnatureof heterosexualfamilyties. (Lewis2005:276) Marriageisconjugal,notjustaclosepersonalrelationshipbecauseofpairbondingsevolutionary significance.Allowingsamesexcouplestomarrywouldstripmarriageofthisrichermeaningsothatit wouldbecomenonrecognizableandunabletoperformitsvitalfunction(276).

3 TheNewJerseySupremeCourtoverturnedtheappellatecourt(Lewisv.Harris2006),andthelegislatureenactedacivilunion lawinresponsetothatruling.

 Theseargumentsagainstsamesexmarriagearenotpersuasive(McClain2007).Theyreston

assumptionsaboutsamenessanddifferencebetweenmenandwomenandbetweenoppositesexand samesexcouples.Allegedly,marriageamelioratessexdifferenceforthesakeofchildrenandhas nothingtodowithsexualitythatdoesnothavenaturalreproductiveconsequences.Butcourtsruling infavorofopeningupcivilmarriagereachdifferentconclusionsaboutsamenessanddifferenceand eschewsuchanarrowfocusonmarriagespurposes.InHernandez(2006:32),ChiefJusticeJudithKaye dissentedthatthestateplainlyhasalegitimateinterestinthewelfareofchildrenandappropriately linkstangiblelegalprotectionsandeconomicbenefitstomarriage.Thestatesinterestinastable societyisrationallyadvancedwhenfamiliesareestablishedandremainintactirrespectiveofthegender ofthespouses(32).Familylawschannelingfunctionisservedbyexpandingthereachofmarriageto samesexparents. Theseissuesalsofeatureinthenewestwaveofchallengestostatemarriagelaws:whetherthe

creationofalegalstatusalternativetomarriage,suchascivilunions,providesequalitytosamesex couples.InKerriganv.CommissionerofPublicHealth(2008),theSupremeCourtofConnecticut concludedthatcivilunionsdidnotaffordsamesexcouplesequalprotectionandthattheirexclusion fromcivilmarriagelackedconstitutionaljustification.Thecourtdeterminedthatsamesexcouples sharethesameinterestinacommittedandlovingrelationshipandinhavingafamilyandraising theirchildreninalovingandsupportiveenvironmentasoppositesexcouples(Kerrigan2008:424).The legislaturerecognizedtheseoverridingsimilaritieswhenitenactedthecivilunionlaw(424),andeven thoughsamesexcouplescannotengageinprocreativesexualconduct,themethodofconceiving childrenisaninsufficientdifferencetonegatefundamentalandoverridingsimilarities(424,note19). Notably,thestatedidnotappealtoprocreationoroptimalchildrearingasrationales.However,

thecourtnotedthattheprocreationrationaleraisedbyseveralamicididnotsatisfyanexceedingly persuasivejustificationrequirement:allowingsamesexcouplestomarryinnowayunderminesany interestthatthestatemayhaveinregulatingprocreativeconductbetweenoppositesexcouples(477, note79).Thecourtalsoarguedthatexpandingmarriagewillnotdiminishthevalidityordignityof oppositesexmarriage,butinsteadreinforcetheimportanceofmarriagetoindividualsand communities(474).Citingtotheseamicisprocreativepurposeargument,dissentingJusticeZarella disagrees:Theancientdefinitionofmarriageastheunionofonemanandonewomanhasitsbasisin biology,notbigotry(Kerrigan2008:51516).

 Thisexaminationofcaselawandofmarriagemovementwritingsillustrateshowbiology,sex

difference,andevolutionareusedtoargueagainstexpandingthedefinitionofmarriage.Because marriageisaformofsocialengineeringthataddressesproblemsposedbynature,itisafundamental andfragileinstitution.Inowturntoconsiderationofhowsomeworkinevolutionarysciencethatmore squarelyasksthewomanquestion(Bartlett1990)mayaidfeministlegaltheoristsponderinghowbest torespondtothesekindsofarguments.Thisscientificworkmayhelpwithidentifyingdifferentfacts abouthumannatureandhumansociety. NATUREANDTHEPOLITICSOFPREHISTORY Inthischapter,Icanonlysketchafewwaysthatfeministorfemalecenteredworkonevolutionary sciencemaychallengethepresentationofnatureandevolutioninpopularizingaccountsandinpublic policyarguments.Feministlegaltheoryshouldheedthepoliticsofprehistory,orhowcertaingender biasesorstereotypesmayshapethestudyofhumanoriginsandimposeapaleolithicglassceiling (Zihlman1997:91).Toooften,femalesfeatureonlyaspassiveparticipantsinaccountsofhumanorigins ratherthanasagentsofevolutionarychange(Hager1997:ix).Asmorefemalescientistsstudyhuman origins,theyhavecorrectedthismisconceptionandhelpinevaluatingcontemporaryappealsto evolutionbothtoopposeandtosupportsocialengineering. Forexample,themarriagemovementstressesthepairbond,notingfemaleandinfant

dependencyonmalehelp,justasevolutionarysciencehasassertedfemaledependencyuponmale provisioning(Hager1997).However,theassumptionofaprehistoricpairbondisaprojectionbackin timetoanarrowWesternviewofmarriageandmating,aformulationtoorigidtoaccountforthe variationthatexistscrossculturally(Zihlman1997:99).TheManasProvisionerthesisassumedthatto increasethehumanpopulationbyhavingalesserintervalbetweenbirths,femalesreducedtheir mobility,stayednearahomebase,andbecamedependentuponmaleswhoprovisionedtheirown matesandoffspring,sincetheycouldberelativelycertainaboutpaternity(102).Thismodelseems preoccupiedwithquestions/anxietiesaboutmalesexuality,attheexpenseofrecognizingfemales rolesinhumanevolution(Falk1997:115).Femalescientistshavenotedflawsinthismodel,inlightof fossilevidenceandstudiesofcontemporaryprimateandhumanhuntergatherersocieties(Zihlman 1997).Thepairbondmayhavelesstodowithmaleprovisioningthanwithsolvingtheproblemofmale matecompetition,freeingafemaletocareforheroffspring.

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 Asprimatologistsputfemalesmoreatthecenterofevolutionarystudy,theimageoffemale

primateshasbeenfleshedouttoincludemuchmorethanjusttheirrolesasmothersandsexual partnersofmales(Fedigan1997:65).Scientistshavestudiedthesignificanceoffemalebonding throughmatrilinealnetworks,femalesexualassertiveness,femalelongtermknowledgeofthe groupslocalenvironment,femalesocialstrategies,femalecognitiveskills,andfemalecompetitionfor reproductivesuccess(65).Thisfemalecenteredworldviewamongprimatologistsmakessense: manyprimatesocietiesarefemalebonded;thuskinrelatedfemalesarethepermanentcoreofthe socialgroup(68).Thesefactswerenotimmediatelyrecognizedbyprimatologists,butarenow facilitatingastrongfocusonfemalesaswellasattractingmorewomentothediscipline(68). SarahBlafferHrdysrecentbook,MothersandOthers:TheEvolutionaryOriginsofMutual

Understanding(2009:22)proposesthatthehumanspeciesismoreadeptatcooperationthanother speciesbecauseoftheevolutionofcooperativebreeding:thepatternofrelyingonallomothers,or alloparents,tohelpmotherscarefortheirchildren.Analloparentisanynonparentwhohelps parentsraisetheiryoung(22).Whilestoriesofhumanoriginsstresscompetition,Hrdylooksat cooperation. Themarriagemovementpondersthemalefemaleproblematic;Hrdy(2009:159)identifiesher

ownperplexingparadox: Ifmensinvestmentinchildrenissoimportant,whyhasntnaturalselectionproducedfathersas singlemindedanddevotedtochildrenas[insomespecies]?Andgiventhatmalecareisso idiosyncraticallyandcontingentlyexpressed,howcouldnaturalselectionhavefavoredhuman motherswhoinvariablyproducedoffspringbeyondtheirmeanstorearalone? (Hrdy2009:162) Whilethemarriagemovementstressestheproblemoffatherlessnessandlookstomarriageasthe solution,Hrdylooksatthewaythathumanandnonhumanmothersenlistalloparentstoassistinraising young.Thesealloparentalsafetynetsprovidedtheconditionsinwhichhighlyvariablepaternal commitmentcouldevolve(166).Evolutionaryinterpretationsofmalebehaviorhaveanobsessive focusoncertaintyofpaternityasaprerequisitetopaternalinvestment,butthereiswidevariation amongmenwithrelativelyhighcertaintyofpaternityintermsofactuallyengagingindirectcareof infantsaswellasinstanceswheremenwhodonotshareachildsgenesinvestinchildcare(16768).
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 Evolutionarytheorytendstoprojectthenuclearfamilybackintime.Bycontrast,Hrdy(2009:

166)describesthetypicalornaturalPleistocenefamilyaskinbased,childcentered,opportunistic, mobile,andvery,veryflexible.LikeBrizendine,shewouldworryaboutsinglemothersbutwouldlook tothevitalroleofalloparentsandsocialsupports,insteadofassumingmaleprotectionandprovisionas thebestoption.Indeed,thepreeminenceofthemanthehunter/sexcontractparadigm,withits accompanyingstereotypesaboutnuclearfamiliesandmaternalcaregivinghavebeenobstaclesto recognizingtheevolutionofcooperativebreeding(23940).Removingtheseobstaclescameinpart fromtheeffortsofHrdyandothersociobiologists(manyofuswomen)toexpandevolutionarytheory toincludeselectionpressuresonbothsexes,includingpostmenopausalfemales(258).The grandmotherhypothesis,isthatnewopportunitiestohelpkingeneratedselectionpressuresfavoring longerlifespansamongpostmenopausalwomen(255). Assumingthathominidsandearlyhumanswerepatrilocalhashinderedappreciationofthe

extenttowhichearlyresidencepatternsmayhavebeenmatrilocal(24143).Asstartingassumptionsof evolutionarymindedanthropologistsaboutresidentialpatternschanged,itbecamepossibletoask newquestionsaboutcooperativebreedingandtheroleofalloparents(245).Studiesindicatethe preeminenceofgrandmothersamongalloparents:havingagrandmothernearbyhasasignificant impactonthechildrearingsuccessofyoungerkinandmaysometimesmoregreatlyenhancechildwell beingthanthepresenceofafather(253,261).Inpatrilocalsocieties,apaternalgrandmothers contributionmaybemoretohersonssuccess,measuredinshorterintervalsbetweenbirths;the presenceofmaternalgrandmothersseemstocorrelatemorewithgreaterchildwellbeing(26164). Hrdyalsoreferstoyounghumanfemalesadeptnessatcommunicationandmakingfriends,linkingitnot onlytotendingandbefriendingtoobtainsupport,butalsoasawaytomanufactureallomothers: Whetherconsciouslyornot,womenseeksisterswithwhomtosharecareofourchildren(271). Ontheconflictbetweenmaleandfemalereproductiveinterests,Hrdy(26465)speaksof

patriarchalcomplicationssincethePleistocene,suggestingearlierpracticeswerelesspatriarchal. Concernwithensuringpaternityandpreservingthepatrilineleadstopracticesdetrimentaltothewell beingofmothers(andchildrentoo);shementionssequesteringwomenandgenitalinfibulations(265). Hrdyshypothesisabouttheevolutionofcooperativebreedingoffersacorrectiveto

evolutionarypsychologysemphasisoncompetitionandonmaleandfemalestrategies.Thefocusonan agonisticstrugglebetweenthesexesthatisbridgedonlythroughmarriagedetractsfromabroader focusontherangeofsocialnetworksandsupportsthatcontributetosuccessfulchildrearingandwell

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 being.Whilethemarriagemovementstressesintegratingsexualandparentingbonds,somefeminist legaltheorists(e.g.Fineman1995,2004)arguethatfocusingonthesexualfamilydivertsattention fromthefamilysimportantintergenerationalcaretakingfunction.Ittakes,Hrdyparaphrases, alloparentstoraiseachild.Aprominentcontemporaryexampleisavailable:FirstLadyMichelle ObamasmothermovedintotheWhiteHousebecauseofhercrucialrolecaringfortheObamachildren (Swarns2009).Hrdysemphasisontheroleofalloparentscouldsupportargumentsmadeinfavorof greaterfamilydiversityitisnotthegenetictiesomuchasprovidingnurturetochildrenthat contributestotheirwellbeing. CULTURE:RESISTINGEQUALITY Cultureisanotherreasonoftengivenforthedifficultyofachievingsexequality.Womenandmen reportedlyworrythatsexequalitypushesbeyondculturallimitsbyrequiringakindofandrogynyor samenessthatdeniestheirgenderedidentities.FeministlegaltheoristWendyWilliams(1982)identified theproblemofculturallimitsdecadesago,askingfeministstothinkasdeeplyastheycanaboutwhat wewantthefutureofwomenandmentobeequalityofthesexesorjusticefortwokindsof beingswhoarefundamentallydifferent.Inhisrecentbook,Manliness,HarveyMansfield(2006:13) arguesthatthereisagapbetweentheofficialcommitmenttoagenderneutralsocietyandmensand womensunofficialdesire.Ifocusbrieflyontwoexamplesofculturalresistancetosocialcooperation ontermsofsexequality:thepossibilityofegalitarianmarriageandpopularculturedepictionsof heterosexualromance. Doesmaritalhappinessrequireinequality?Evolutionaryaccountsofmateselectionstressmens

andwomensdivergingcriteria.Morerecentstudiesofmarriagepatternssuggestthegrowingpractice ofassortativemating:ratherthanmarryingupordown,welleducatedandeconomicallyresourceful peoplechoosetomarrytheirpeers(Paul2006;SchwartzandMare2005).Meanwhile,lowerincome menandwomenmaycohabitratherthanmarrybecausetheywantathresholdlevelofeconomic resourcesbeforetheymarry(Cherlin2009). Egalitarianorpeermarriageisamorejustformofmarriage,fromafeministorliberal

perspective,thantraditionalmarriageandmorelikelytobehappyandstable(Schwartz1994).Marriage equalityisafactorcontributingtomarriagequality,particularlyforwomen(McClain2006).However, otherscholarspointoutthatmarriageswithatraditionalgendereddivisionoflabormayalsobequite stablesolongasspousesexpectationsdonotchange(HetheringtonandKelly2002).Spousesmayalso

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 acceptanunequaldivisionoflaboreveniftheythinkitisunfair(BrinigandNock2002).Thus, considerabledisagreementexistsaboutwhethersocialcooperationbesttakesplaceontermsof equalityorinequality. ThisdebateoverthedesirabilityofegalitarianmarriagesurfacedrecentlywhenNewYorks

governorElliotSpitzerresignedafterdisclosurethathewasacustomerofahighpricedprostitution service.Spitzerapologizedforhisfailingsandspokeoftheneedtohealhimselfandhisfamilyashis wife,SildaWallSpitzer,stoodbyhisside.TheimageofSpitzerswifebyhissideduringthisscandalwas instarkcontrasttoaphotoofthetwoofthemthatpreviouslyappearedonthecoverofthemagazine, 02138:PowerCouples:SeeWhatHappensWhenHarvardMeetsHarvard(McCormacketal.2007). Lovebetweenequalscanwork,andevenbefunandsexy,thestoryandaccompanyingphotosseemed toannounce. Afterthescandal,amodelforhappymarriagedifferentfromthatofthepowercouplewas

offeredbyconservativeselfhelpauthor,Dr.LauraSchlessinger.StunningherhostontheTodayshow, Schlesingerlaidtheproblemofmenscheatingatthedoorofanywifewhofailedtomakeherhusband feellikeaman...likeasuccess...likeherhero,sothathewasverysusceptibletothecharmofsome otherwoman.Schlessingerholdswomenaccountablefornotgivingperfectlygoodmenthelove, kindness,respect,andattentiontheyneed,chargingthatthesedays,womendontspendalotoftime thinkingabouthowtheycangivetheirmenwhattheyneed...(Armstrong2008).4InSildaWallSpitzers case,thisdiagnosisseemsparticularlyinapt,giventhatsheputherowncareerasidetohelpher husbandinhis.Butitdoessuggestculturalresistancetoequality.Dr.Lauraisaprovocateurandher commentsdrewcriticism;however,sheisalsoapopularauthor.Herbook,TheProperCareandFeeding ofHusbands(2004:3),indictsthewomensmovementasacoredestructiveinfluenceandadvises wivestotreattheirhusbandswithrespect,reinforcethemasheadofthehousehold,andcelebrate difference.Admirationanddeferencewillyieldawifemorepowerandhappinessthandirectchallenge. Mansfield(2006:18)alsospeaksaboutadmirationlook[ing]uptosomeoneincontrolasaproper responsetomanliness. Inthisview,equalityisaturnoff.Inequalityissexy.Inthewakeofrecentinfidelityscandals

involvingprominentpoliticians,somecommentatorslooktoevolutionaryscienceshypothesisthat mensphilanderingincreasestheirreproductivesuccess(Porter2009).TheSpitzerscandalalsoplayed
4

Readersmayviewtheshowatwww.msnbc.msn.com/id./235752221/.

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 asastoryofmaritalfailureandacautionarytaletowivesabouthowtokeeptheirmarriagessexyand theirmenfromstraying.However,resistanceofthisdiagnosismaybeevidentfrommanywomen findingacatharsisinFirstLadyJennySanfordshardhittingpublicstatementsaboutGovernorMark Sanfordsconfessedinfidelityandherabsencefromhispressconference(Kaufman2009). Anotherillustrationofculturallimitsconcerningegalitarianmarriageisthecontinuingissueof

workfamilyconflictandthedivisionoflaborinthehome.Lawsandpolicieshavemovedusclosertoa worldwheremothersandfathershaveequalrightsandresponsibilities,asalegalmatter,fortheir childrenandwhere,asamatterofsocialnorms,womenworkoutsidethehomeandmenplayanactive roleinnurturingchildren.Butthedivisionoflaborinfamiliesremainsaflashpoint,asisevidentfromthe newsstorieseveryseveralmonthsaboutthesocalledoptoutrevolutionwherehighlyeducated womenarechoosingtostayhomeratherthanpursueprofessionalsuccess.Allthreegenerationsof feministlegaltheoristsrepresentedinthisvolumehavedevotedattentiontotheseissuesaboutcare, work,andfamily;myfocusisonwhatthedebatesuggestsaboutculturallimits. Oneculturallimitisthatwhileworkplaceshavecomealongwaytowardrecognizingthat

workersmayhavecaretakingresponsibilities,culturalperceptionsofmaleworkersstilldifferfromthose offemaleworkers.Manymenaspiretoamoreflexiblebalancebetweenfamilylifeandworkbutmay rationallyperceivethattheywillpayahighercostintermsofseemingcommittedtothejobiftheytake advantageofemploymentpoliciesdesignedtohelpparents(JacobsandGerson2004). Partoftheunfinishedbusinessoffeminismisthatmensliveshavechangedtoalesserdegree

thanwomens.Somefeministtheoristsarguethatinsteadofpushingthestateformorepublicpolicy, wivesandmothersshoulddirecttheirenergytowardpersuadingmentochange(Hirschmann2008). LegalfeministMaryAnneCase(2001)arguesfordirectingefforttowardaredistributionofresponsibility fromwomentomenratherthantoemployersorthestate.Certainly,governmentisnottheonly relevantactorwhenitcomestoadvancingsexequality.Thus,politicaltheoristNancyHirschmann(2008) raisesausefulquestion:howcanmenbepersuadedtochangeandhowcanwomenbepersuadedto insistonthatchange?ThisisabasicpremiseofhowtobookssuchasJoshuaColemansTheLazy Husband:HowtoGetMentoDoMoreParentingandHousework(2005).WhileDr.Laurasbook promisesmaritalhappinessbyacceptingroledifferentiationandresistingfeministideology,Colemans bookpromisestosavemarriagesandincreasemaritalhappinessbyincreasingequality. Mansfieldproposesadifferentculturallimit:manliness.Manlymenhaveadisdainforwomens

work,includinghousework.Manlinesspreventsmenfromgivingequalhonortowomen:thisisthe
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 issuebehindinequalityinhousework(2006:9,13).Ifthisisthecase,thenitsuggestslimitstofeminist socialengineering.Ontheotherhand,alternativemodelsofmensrelationshiptothehomeandto familylifemaysuggestgreatersuccessofthefeministproject.Themarriagemovementitselfattributes womensdiscontentwiththehouseholddivisionoflaborasareasonwhyyoungwomenareless optimisticthanyoungmenabouthavingahappymarriageandwhywomentodayaremorewillingto exitmarriages(PopenoeandWhitehead1999).Whilesomemarriageproponentsarguethatacultural scriptofagendereddivisionoflaborinthehomeisbetterthanendlessnegotiationoverroles,others supportequalrightsandresponsibilitiesinandoutsideofthehome(McClain2006:14251). Equalityisimportanttomarriagequalityandtoaddressingworklifeconflict.Afterthedeathof

BettyFriedan,somecommentatorsaskediffeminismwasafailurebecausewomenwerechoosingto stayhomeratherthanjugglecareerandfamily.Oneresponsewasthatwomenweremakingachoice, andwasntfeminism,afterall,aboutwomenbeingabletomakechoices?No,saidfeministscholarLinda Hirshman(2005,2006),arguingthatwomenwhowereoptingoutwereinfactmakingbadchoicesnot tobecelebratedasafeministtriumph.Thisdebateaboutfeminismsgoalssuggestsonecomplicationin theorizingandachievingequality.Friedansemphasisonwomengettingoutofthehomeandhaving careers,whilepaidhouseholdworkerstookuptheslack,riskeddevaluingtheimportanceoffamilyand homelifeandsuggestedonlyonemodelofagoodlifetowhichwomenshouldaspire.However,when feministsassesstheissueofchoice,issueslikehowculturalexpectationsforboysandgirlsshapetheir lifeprospects,whethersocialinstitutionsmakeitequallypossibleforwomenandmentopursuecertain lifeplans,andwhetherproblemsofunequalbargainingpowerconstraintheexerciseofchoiceare appropriateconcerns. Popularcultureoffersexamplesofculturalresistancetosexequalityevenasitsuggests

progresstowardequality.Popularbooksandfilmsseemtoask,whatifwomendontwanttohaveitall? Whatifanequilibriumbetweenthesexesisdisturbedbysexequality?Whatifwomenandmenfindsex inequalityeasierandsexierthanequality? Considerthecontrastbetweenthe2004and1975films,TheStepfordWives,basedonthebest

sellingnovelbyIraLevin.The1975film,acultclassic,chronicledthemaritaltensionarisingfroma suburbanhousewifesfledglingstepstowardliberationinaphotographycareer.PortrayedbyKatherine Ross,shewonderswhyalltheotherwivesinStepfordfocussoblissfullyandroboticallyonhomemaking andpleasingtheirhusbandssexually.Shebondswithanotherwifewhohasdabbledwithconsciousness raisingandwomenslib,buttheycannotinteresttheotherwivesinquestioningtheirlives.She

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 discoverstheformulaformaritalhappinessafterherfriendisinexplicablytransformedandjustbefore shemeetsherownfate:themensclubtowhichthehusbandsbelongkillsthewivesandreplacesthem withrobots. Inthe2004remake,theworldisdifferent.Womenhaveformalequalityofopportunityandare

suchsuperachieversthattheirhusbandsfeelthreatened.Replacingthemwithrobotsrestoresthe genderequilibrium.Theprotagonistwife(NicoleKidman)isaruthlessentertainmentexecutive,whose proposedrealitytelevisionshowisabattleofthesexesshow,withthepremisethatanythingmencan do,womencandobetter.Shelosesherjobwhenahumiliatedhusbandkillshiswifeandtriesto assassinateher.Sheandherhusband(MatthewBroderick)relocatetoanewcommunitywhere averagelookinghusbandshavepleasant,compliantwiveswearingfloraldresses.Broderickisonthe vergeofreplacinghiswifewitharobotbecause,asheputsit,sheissuperiortohimineveryway.By contrasttotheoriginalfilm,hecannotgothroughwithitbecause,asKidmantellshimpleadingly,a robotcantsay,Iloveyou,andmeanit. Inmerelythreedecades,thebattleofthesexeshasshiftedfromhusbandsmadeuneasyby

womenbristlingattheconstraintsofthehousewifelyroletohusbandswhofeelinadequateintheface oftheirwivessuccess.Ineachcase,anequilibriumisupsetbychangesingenderrelations.Buta strangeplottwistintheremakecomplicatesthequestionofculturalresistance:themastermindbehind therobotschemeisawifewhokilledherhusbandandreplacedhimwitharobotwhen,hurtbyhis maritalbetrayal,shesoughttoreturntoasimpler,morebeautifultime. MysecondculturalexampleisHelenFieldingswildlypopularbook,BridgetJonessDiary,a

forerunnerofthechicklitgenre.FieldingmodeledherbookonJaneAustensPrideandPrejudice. Thoughseparatedbynearlytwocenturies,thesebooksshareacommontheme:howdoesayoung womanlaboringundergenderbasedconstraintsnegotiatethepathtoahappymarriage,or,atleastto asuccessfulheterosexualrelationship? FieldingsselfconsciousappropriationofAustenandthefrequentdescriptionofBridgetJoness

Diaryaspostfeministinvitefeministinquiryintohowtheculturalscriptsofthesebooksdiffer.One trajectoryisfromPrideandPrejudicesheroine,ElizabethBennett,anintelligent,astutecriticofsocial conventions,toBridgetJones,azanydiaristofandparticipantobserverinsuchconventions.Asecondis fromthewealthy,enigmatic,andproudgentleman,Mr.Darcytothewealthy,stiff,eminenthuman rightslawyerMarkDarcy.

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 AsanAustenfan,IfindthetrajectoryfromElizabethtoBridgetdistressing.Ininterviews,

Fieldinghassaidthathernovelisironic.BridgetJonesisreallyabouttryingtoohard,tryingtobetoo perfecttohaveitall;itsokaytobelikeBridget,normalandfun(Penguin.com2009).Perhaps. Butanotherreadingmaybethatsexequalityisabore,andsexinequalityismorefunandsexier.Bridget seemstooflawedtoendupwiththeexemplaryMarkDarcy.Awashinselfhelpbooks,catalogingdaily herexcessiveintakeofalcoholandcigarettes,Bridgetmakesfoolishchoiceafterfoolishchoice.She seemsamuchdiminishedElizabethBennett.InPrideandPrejudice,Mr.Darcycanthelphisattraction toElizabethdespiteherclassstandingandembarrassingfamily;hercriticismofhimultimatelyhumbles himenoughtoreformhispridebettertorevealhisbasicgoodcharacter.Bycontrast,Bridget embarrassesherselfandseemstobetheonlyoneinneedofreform,evenasherhaplessquestforself improvementamusesreadersandfilmviewers. ThebookinspiredapopularfilmthatfurtherheightensthedistancebetweenBridgetandMark

bycontrastingherineptitudeandinappropriatenesswiththatofhislawpartnerandapparentgirlfriend, Natasha,hisequalineducation,professionalachievement,andheight.ButMarkdoesnotwanthis equal,whosummonshimbysnappingherfingers.Hewantsantic,inept,andsexyBridget,whowearsa Playboybunnycostumetoacostumeparty,accidentallyshowsherbumontelevision,andisaterrible publicspeaker.WhyisMarkattracted?BridgetseemstobeMarksrewardforhismoralrectitude,a burstofcolorandchaosenliveninghissteadypathtowardgreatersuccess.HelovesBridget,justasshe is. TryingtoputapositivespinonBridget,afeministmightarguethatinPrideandPrejudice,

womenandtheirfamiliespayahighpriceintermsofsocialreputationandmarriageabilityforchoosing thewrongman.Lydia,Elizabethsflirtatiousyoungersister,runsoffwithWickham,ascoundreltowhom Elizabethwasinitiallyattracted,andtheBennettfamilyavoidsruinonlywhenMr.Darcyforces WickhamtomarryLydia.BridgetJones,bycontrast,fusesElizabethandLydia:shegetstofallforand havesexwithMr.WrongandstillendupwithMr.Right.EvenBridgetsmotherisallowed temporarilytoleaveherhusbandforthewrongmanandstillendupallright.Inbothbooks,thehero rescuestheheroineandherfamily,suggestingsomemenssuperiorcompetenceandpoweringetting thingsdoneintheworld. Lightenup,somemightsay;cantfeministstakeajoke?Sure,butisthereatakehomemessage

aboutnotlookingforloveontermsofequality?
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 CONCLUSION Respondingtoassertionsthatnaturaldifferencesorculturalimperativeslimitthepossibilityof equalityornecessitateparticularinstitutionalformsforthefamilyrequiresthatfeministtheorists generateandcontributetowellinformedvisionsoftheinterplayofnatureandculture.Weshouldask whatsortsofsocialcooperationarepossibleandvaluableintheareasofsexuality,reproduction,and parenting.Appealstobridgingthegenderdivideinorderinghumansocietyinvitefeministcounter narratives.Assuchnarrativestheorizeontheproperroleofsocialengineeringandinstitutions,our feministcommitmenttosubstantiveequalityshouldremainaguidingideal.

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 Kaufman,Leslie.(June27,2009)PoliticalWifesHardLineStrikesChord.NewYorkTimes:A12 Kerriganv.CommissionerofPublicHealth.(2008)957A.2d407(Connecticut). Lewisv.Harris.(2005)875A.2d259(N.J.App.Div.) Lewisv.Harris.(2006)908A.2d196.(N.J.) Liberman,Mark.(2006).NeuroscienceintheServiceofSexualStereotypes.LanguageLog. http://158.130.17.5/~myl/languagelog/archives/003419.html Littleton,ChristineA.(1987).ReconstructingLegalEquality.CaliforniaLawReview75:12791337. Mansfield,HarveyC.(2006).Manliness.NewHaven,CTandLondon:YaleUniversityPress. McClain,LindaC.(2009).Child,Family,State,andGenderEqualityinReligiousStancesandHuman RightsInstruments:APreliminaryComparison.MarthaAlbertsonFinemanandKaren Worthington,ed.,WhatsRightforChildren?TheCompetingParadigmsofReligionandHuman Rights.Farnham,England:AshgatePublishingLtd.. McClain,LindaC.andJoannaL.Grossman.(2009).GenderEquality:DimensionsofWomensEqual Citizenship.CambridgeandNewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress. McClain,LindaC.(2007).Love,Marriage,andtheBabyCarriage:RevisitingtheChannellingFunctionof FamilyLaw.CardozoLawReview28:21332183. McClain,LindaC.(2006).ThePlaceofFamilies:FosteringCapacity,Equality,andResponsibility. Cambridge,MAandLondon:HarvardUniversityPress. McCormack,Lindseyetal.(2007).PowerCouples:SeeWhatHappensWhenHarvardMeetsHarvard. 02138,Winter2007:6278. MississippiUniversityforWomenv.Hogan(1982).458U.S.718. Paul,AnnieMurphy.(November19,2006)TheRealMarriagePenalty.NewYorkTimes (Magazine,Section6:22). Penguin.Com(2009).BookClubs/ReadingGuides:BridgetJonessDiary/HelenFielding. http://us.penguingroup.com/static/rguides/us/bridget_jonessdiary.html Popenoe,David.(May22,2001).TestimonyofDavidPopenoe.HearingonWelfareandMarriage, HouseWaysandMeansCommittee. Popenoe,DavidandBarbaraDafoeWhitehead.(1999).TheStateofOurUnions. http://www.marriage.rutgers.edu
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