Bio 11 Laboratory; Part 3 Exercise 20: Types of Tissues 1.

. Epithelial Tissue Tightly packed cells with very little intercellular material Lies on a basement membrane Form the outer coverings and inner linings of the body tissues Most primitive tissues; first to develop For protection, selective absorption and secretion Grouped into: covering found on the outer body surface glandular epithelium inner body surface Types: Glandular Epithelium specialized for the production of secretory substances Squamous Epithelium Cuboidal Epithelium Columnar Epithelium Ciliated Epithelium respiratory tract; prevent accumulation of dirt 2. Muscular Tissue Specialized for movement Muscle cells are called muscle fibers long, spindle-shaped thread-like structures Types: Nonstriated (smooth) muscles contractile tissues of visceral organs (except the heart); involuntary muscles Striated muscles skeletal and cardiac muscles; characterized by alternating dark bonds (anisotropic or A-disc) and light bonds (isotropic or I-disc) sarcolemma cell membrane of muscle tissue syncitium multinucleated condition in cells 3. Supporting and Connective Tissue Characterized by the presence of a large amount of intercellular material and a paucity of cells Attach or connect parts, to support, to provide a medium through which tissue fluids containing nutrients and wastes may diffuse Fibrocytes connective tissue cells Types: Cartilage may be hyaline, fibrous or elastic; cartilage cells (chondrocytes) are located in spaces called lacunae Bone composed of bone cells (osteocytes) embedded in a calcified matrix 4. Vascular (Blood) Tissue Blood fluid tissue made up of plasma (liquid component) and blood cells; also considered as part of the connective tissue group Frog blood Erythrocytes contain oval darkly stained nuclei Leucocytes similar in size and fewer in number Human blood Erythrocytes biconcave discs without nuclei; the color pigment (red) is hemoglobin that contributes to transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide; tendency to form rouleaux (resembling a

stack of coins) Leucocytes fewer in number and larger than erthrocytes Polymorphonuclear Leucocytes or Granulocytes also called polymorphs; has irregular nuclei with a variety of shapes Neutrophils most numerous of all WBC; two to five or more thin lobes connected by slender chromatin threads; granules are fine and do not stain well at neutral pH Eosinophils few in number; two oval lobes linked by thread-like chromatin make up the nuclei; their granules are coarse and stain pinkish red with acid stains Basophils least numerous; their nuclei stain very faintly and are often obscured by coarse cytoplasmic granules that stain blue with basic dyes Lymphocytes moderately numerous; their nuclei are large, somewhat spherical with some indentations and only slight eccentric; with narrow cytoplasm around the nucleus; smallest of the WBC and slightly larger than RBC Monocytes few in number; their nuclei vary from slightly indented to horseshoe-shaped structures; large amounts of cytoplasm than lymphocytes are present; largest of the WBC 5. Nervous Tissue Neuron nerve cells; cytoplasm is drawn into long nerve fibers Dendrites carry impulse toward the cell body Axon carries impulse away from the cell body Sheath of Schwann covers the nerve fiber; protoplasmic Axis cylinder central transparent portion; covered by myelin sheath Nodes of Ranvier where the myelin sheath is constricted Nerve bundle of nerve fibers bound by connective tissue Epineurium loose connective tissue covering the nerve Fascicles nerve bundles Perineurium dense sheath of connective tissue covering the fascicle Endoneurium network of delicate connective tissue fibrils enclosing the nerve fibers inside the nerve bundles Exercise 21: Microscopic Anatomy of Frog Organs 1. Skin Two main regions: Outer Epidermis epithelial Stratum corneum outermost layer of the epidermis; made up of thin, flat cells (squamous cells), which are dead cells and pushed outwards and continuously being shed off Stratum germinativum second layer of the epidermis; consists of several rows of more or less spherical cells and a deeper layer of columnar cells which continuously cell divides Inner Dermis or Corium - largely connective tissue Stratum spongiosum or Stratum laxum layer of loose connective tissue containing prominent chromatophores and cutaneous glands Stratum compactum deeper layer of dermis; made of tightly packed horizontal strands of connective tissue with alternating vertical connective tissue strands 2. Liver Liver cells polygonal in cross section with darkly stained spherical nuclei Pigment granules Bile duct Sinusoids endothelial tubes wider than most capillaries but without the distinctive coats of arterioles

and venules 3. Intestine Appears round in cross section and the inner walls are circular folds (valves of Kerkring) Parts: Tunica mucosa innermost layer lining the cavity or lumen; made up of simple columnar epithelial cells and the goblet cells that secrete mucus Tunica submucosa outer to the mucosa; made up of loose connective tissue Tunica muscularis outer to the submucosa; made up of two layers of muscles perpendicular to each other Stratum circulare thick inner circular layer; spindle-shaped smooth muscle cells Stratum longitudinale thin outer longitudinal layer where cross sections of the muscle cells can be seen Tunica serosa outermost covering; very thin layer of loose connective tissue covered by mesothelium 4. Stomach Appears round in cross section and its inner wall is characterized by the large wavy folds called rugae Parts: Tunica mucosa composed of innermost epithelial layer of columnar cells and outer layer of connective tissue, lamina propria; gastric pits are invaginations of its epithelial layer and lead to gastric glands neck and body Zymogenic cells Parietal cells Muscularis mucosa outer to lamina propria; consists of an inner circular layer and an outer longitudinal layer Tela submucosa made up of loose connected tissue containing blood vessels and lymph spaces Tunica muscularis very thick; made up of a circular layer of smooth muscle Subserosa narrow layer of connective tissue containing a few longitudinal muscle strands Tunica serosa outermost covering of the stomach; made up of loose connective tissue covered with mesothelium 5. Kidney Appears bean-shaped in cross section Ventral border is concave Adrenal gland mass of epithelial cells in the ventral depression of the organ Parts: Malphighian bodies or renal corpuscles made up of network of capillaries, the glomerulus, within a cup-shaped double membrane, the Bowman's capsule Uriniferous tubules long, coiled area where glomerular filtrate passes Collecting tubules open into the mesonephric duct; fewer and possesses a wide lumen Renal portal vein 6. Spinal Cord Two regions: White matter made up of lossely arranged madullated nerve fibers and supporting cells called neuroglia Gray matter made up of cell bodies of neurons and supporting neuroglia Dorsal cornua Ventral cornua wider and farther apart

 Central canal lined by spendymal cells Neuroglia (glial cells) cytoplasm appears indistinct but their nuclei are clearly seen as small oval bodies Motor cells most prominent neurons in the spinal cord; concentrated in the ventral cornua; bigger than glial cells and have chromophilic bodies Motor neurons found in groups of three to seven in Ventral cornua Dura mater thick loose cylindrical covering Pia mater thin layer of connective tissue with a number of blood vessels Ventral spinal artery Exercise 1: Animal Forms 1. Symmetry Correspondence in size, shape and relative position of the parts that are on opposite sides of a dividing line Three types: universal, radial, bilateral 2. Metamerism Regular repetition of body parts along the antero-posterior axis 3. Cephalization Condition of having body parts more or less differentiated into recognizable zones, such as head, trunk, tail 4. Appendages Segmented or unsegmented Antennae, tentacles, lophophores, etc 5. External Anatomy of the Frog Whole body is covered with skin, which is soft and mucoid in life Two main divisions: Axial region head somewhat triangular; apex is the snout; nostrils; bulging eyes are on the dorsolateral side protected by upper and lower eyelids; eardrum circular patch trunk Appendicular region forelimbs manus composed of four segmented digits forearm near the manus upper arm near the forearm hindlimbs proximal thigh, middle shank, distal pes Exercise 2: Animal Integuments Integument outer covering of an animal which may be soft or hard, dry or wet Slimy epithelium simplest form Earthworms secrete cuticle Mantle soft integument of mollusks; may be hard because of chitin in some; secretes the shell which may be outer or inner

 Anthropods have rigid integument that is chinitnous with calcium carbonate Echinoderms integument is the vertebrate skin Exercise 3: Skeletal System Skeleton any hardened portion of the body Exoskeleton outside Corals are calcerous Shells of mollusks calcerous; composed of univalve or bivalve; chitinous Turtles are partly bony and hairy composed of dorsal carapace and a ventral plastron Bony scales Horny shields snakes and lizards (crocodiles) Plumage birds (feathers) Pelage covering of hair in mammals True horns are hollow cattle and buffalo Antlers horns of deers; bony Claws, nails, hooves (horses and cattle) Endoskeleton inside Pen squids (transparent and pliant) and cuttlefishes (thick and larger) Test or corona shell of the sea urchin; calcerous Endoskeletal system vertebrates support, locomotion, protection Exercise 5: Motion and Locomotion 1. Locomotion in Planaria Planarians hydrostatic skeleton Capable of looping in the manner of leeches Also use pedal locomotor waves 2. Locomotion in Gastropod Mollusks By means of flattened muscular foot through pedal locomotory waves 3. Locomotion in Earthworms Highest form of locomotor system dependent on hydrostatic skeleton 4. Motion and Locomotion in the Vertebrates Demonstration of Muscle Action Action - specific movement produced by a muscle Antagonists groups of muscles whose actions are opposite Synergists groups of muscles acting in concert Adductor moves a part towards the axis of the body, an abductor produces an opposite reaction Flexor bends a part, an extensor extend a part Levator raises a part, a depressor lower it Constrictor closes an aperture, a dilator opens it Rotator rotates the vertebral column Locomotion in Vertebrates Undulatory swimming body is thrown into waves that pass along the animal brought about by the contraction of the trunk musculature

 Pedal locomotion movement is achieved mainly by contraction of the limb muscles True flight achieved by birds and bats