Malak Younis Chapter 30 Plant Diversity II: The Evolution of Seed Pants

Objectives Key Terrestrial Adaptations Were Crucial to the Success of Seed Plants 1. Name five terrestrial adaptations that contributed to the success of seed plants. The five terrestrial adaptations include the seed, reduction of the gametophyte generation, heterospory, ovules, and pollen. 2. Compare the size and independence of the gametophytes of bryophytes with those of seed plants. Seedless vascular plants have tiny gametophytes that are visible to the naked eye. The gametophytes of seed plants are microscopically small and develop from spores in the sporangia of the parental sporophyte. The gametophytes of seed plants obtain nutrients from their parents, while the gametophytes of seedless vascular plants must fend for themselves. 3. Describe the ovule of a seed plant. An ovule of a seed plant consists of the megasporangium, megaspores, and integuments. 4. Contrast the male gametophytes of bryophytes with those of seed plants. Male gametophytes travel long distances as pollen grains. The sperm of seed plants, unlike bryophytes, lack flagella and do not require a film of water, as they rely on the pollen tube to reach the egg cell within the ovule. 5. Explain why pollen grains were an important adaptation for successful reproduction on land. Pollen grains were an important adaptation because the evolution of pollen allowed for pollination and contributed to the diversity of seed plants 6. Explain how a seed can be said to include contributions from three distinct generations. Seeds can survive harsh conditions through dormancy, are distributed far from their parent sporophyte, and are multicellular. 7. Compare spores with seeds as dispersal stages in plant life cycles. Moss spores can survive even if the local environment is too cold, too hot, or too dry for the moss plants themselves to survive. Because of their tiny size, the spores themselves can be dispersed in a dormant state to a new area. The seed represents a different solution to resisting harsh environments and dispersing offspring. A multicellular seed is more complex and resistant. After being released, a seed may remain dormant for days or years. Under favorable conditions, it germinates and the sporophyte embryo emerges as a seedling. Gymnosperms 8. Explain how climatic changes with the formation of the supercontinent Pangaea favored the spread of gymnosperms. Climatic conditions became warmer and drier, favoring the spread of gymnosperms

9. List and distinguish among the four phyla of gymnosperms. Phylum Ginkgophyta consists of only a single extant species, Ginkgo biloba. This popular ornamental species has fan like leaves that turn gold before they fall off in the autumn. Cycads (phylum Cycadophyta) have large cones and palm like leaves. Cycads flourished in the Mesozoic era. Phylum Gnetophyta consists of three very different genera. Weltwitschia plants have straplike leaves that are among thelargest known leaves. Gentum species are tropical trees or vines. Ephedra is a shrub of the American deserts. The conifers belong to the largest gymnosperm phylum, the phylum Coniferophyta. The term conifer comes from there productive structure, the cone, which is a cluster of scale like sporophylls. 10. Describe the life history of a pine. Indicate which structures are part of the gametophyte generation and which are part of the sporophyte generation. In most conifer species, each tree has both ovulate and pollen cones. The pine tree is the sporophyte. Each ovulate cone contains megasporangium. Microsporangium undergoes meiosis, producing haploid micropsores that develop into pollen grains. A pollen grain enters through the micropyle and germinates, forming a pollen tube that digests through the megasporangium. By meiosis, four haploid cells are produced. One survives as a megaspore. Female egg develops. Fertilization occurs as sperm and egg nuclei unite. The ovule becomes a seed Angiosperms (Flowering Plants) 11. Identify the following floral structures and describe a function for each: a. sepal: modified leaf in angiosperms that helps enclose and protect a flower bud before it opens b. petal: modified leaf of a flowering plant that advertise insects and other pollinators c. stamen: pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower d. carpel: ovule-producing reproductive organ of flower e. filament: stalk of a stamen f. anther : in an angiosperm, the terminal pollen sac of a stamen, where pollen grains with male gametes form g. stigma: sticky part of a flowers carpel, which traps pollen grains h. style: the stalk of a flowers carpel, with the ovary at the base and the stigma at top i. ovary: in flowers, the portion of a carpel in which the egg-containing ovules develop j. ovule: a structure that develops within the ovary of a seed plant and contains the females gametophyte 12. Define fruit. Explain how fruits may be adapted to disperse seeds. A fruit is a mature ovary of a flower that protects dormant seeds and aids in their dispersal. Some fruits are dispersed by wind, others, such as coconuts, by water. Many rely on animals to carry the seeds by clinging to fur or producing edible fruits so that by the time the seed is deposited from the animal tract, the seed is far from the parental

sporophyte. 13. Explain why a cereal grain is a fruit rather than a seed. Grains are dry fruit with the mature ovary inside it. 14. Diagram the generalized life cycle of an angiosperm. Indicate which structures are part of the gametophyte generation and which are part of the sporophyte generation.

15. Describe the role of the generative cell and the tube cell within the angiosperm pollen grain. A generative cell divides to form two sperm and a tube cell produces a pollen tube 16. Explain the process and function of double fertilization. Double fertilization is a mechanism of fertilization in angiosperm in which two sperm cells unite with two cells in embryo sac to form the zygote and endosperm. One hypothesis for the function of double fertilization is that it synchronizes the development of food storage in the seed with development of the embryo. 17. Explain the significance of Archaefructus. In the late 1990s, scientists in China discovered fossils of 125-million-year-old angiosperms named Archaefructus liaoningensis and Archaefructus sinensis. This species may be a protoangiosperm, suggesting that the ancestors of flowering plants were herbaceous rather than woody.

18. Explain the significance of Amborella. Surviving basal angiosperm consist of three lineages, the oldest being Amborella. Amborella is a basal angiosperm that lacks vessels that are found in more derived angiosperms. 19. Distinguish between monocots and eudicots. Monocots are a clade consisting of flowering plants that have one cotyledon while eudicots is a clade consisting of a vast majority of flowering plants that have two cotyledons. 20. Explain how animals may have influenced the evolution of terrestrial plants and vice versa. Animals crawling on floor created selective pressure favoring plants that kept their spores and gametophytes off the ground and out of easy reach. Plant-pollinator relationship increased angiosperm diversity as well as petals to attract the pollinators. Plants and Human Welfare 21. Name the six angiosperms that are most important in the diet of the human species. The six angiosperms most important in the human diet are wheat, rice, maize, potatoes, cassava, and sweet. 22. Describe the current threat to plant diversity caused by human population growth. The demand for space and natural resources resulting from the exploding human population is extinguishing plant species at an unprecedented rate. Due primarily to the slash-and-burn clearing of forests for agriculture, tropical forests may be completely eliminated within 25 years.

Malak Younis Chapter 31 Fungi Introduction to the Fungi 1. List the characteristics that distinguish fungi from members of other multicellular kingdoms. Fungi look like plants but they are not. Instead of obtaining the 3 major organs of the plant, roots, stems, and leaves, the fungi have hyphae. The root system of the fungus does not collect water for photosynthesis because it has no chloroplast. Instead, it excretes enzymes that decompose decaying organic material and uses those molecules for cellular respiration or live in symbiosis with other organisms, preferably plants. Fungus can live in a wide verity of environments and become several thousands of acres large. Funguses also have unique lifecycles that only obtain to fungi. 2. Explain how fungi acquire their nutrients. Funguses obtain nutrients from organic material around it. From the root system of the fungus, excretions of exoenzymes occur. The enzymes break down organic material until the molecules are small enough for the fungus to absorb. Some fungi live as decomposers where they decompose dead and decaying organism or organism waste in the surrounding environment. Some funguses live in symbiotic relationship with other organisms, usually plants. They produce waste that is beneficial for the plant and the plant produces what is beneficial for the fungus to ingest. 3. Describe the basic body plan of a fungus. Fungi are multicellular organism and some are single cellular. Some single cellular fungi work ina mass that could send signals to one another and work as one larger organism like slime molds.Some multicellular fungi could produce fruiting bodies like mushrooms. They have a network of root like filaments called hyphae and together the mass of filaments are called mycelium. Thismycelium is responsible for the reason why fungus can extend several acres. 4. Describe the processes of plasmogamy and karyogamy in fungi. Plasmogamy-Combining of cytoplasm of hypae of fungus. It is strictly jus the combining of the cytoplasm the nucleus of the hyphae do not merge. The hyphae must be of different mating type and the hypha distinguishes the different types by the release of pheromones. Hyphae detect the pheromones and grow towards them and combine. Karyogamy-is the fusion of two different haploid cells creating one diploid cell. The haploid cells are created by meiosis in fungi. The cell will then undergo mitosis and produce a fruiting body that can produce spores 5. Explain the significance of heterokaryotic stages in fungal life cycles. The different nucleus could interact in the heterokaryotic stages of fungal life cycles. Thenucleus could interact and undergo a process like crossing over. This ability to exchange geneticmaterial increases variation of the fungal species Diversity of Fungi

6. Describe the evidence that suggests that Fungi and Animalia are sister kingdoms. The evidence that fungi and animilia are sister kingdoms were collected using molecular systematic. Using molecular clocks, scientists closely estimated that Fungi and Animalia could have a common ancestor and they diverged off other eukaryotic kingdoms. The molecular systematic also demonstrates that fungi and animals are more closely related than animals to plants or fungi to plants. 7. Explain the possible significance of the flagellated spores of members of the phylum Chytridiomycota. It is logical that flagellated spore is evidence that they evolves from an ancestor with flagellated spores. This information could also imply that members of the phylum Chytridiomycota are the longest branching fungi. However, molecular systematics predicts a potential relationship with the phylum zygomycota that may suggest that chytridiomycota is a paraphyletic group 8. Describe the life cycle of the black bread mold, Rhizopus stolonifer.

9. Describe two alternate hypotheses to explain the reduced mitochondria of the microsporidia. 1. Microsporidia is one of the forms of eukaryotic organism. They branched off before mitochondria evolved. 2. Microsporidias reduced mitochondria came from mitochondria, and evolved to fit the changing environment (natural selection). 10. Distinguish between ectomycorrhizae and endomycorrhizae. Ectomycorrhizae is when fungi grow sheaths of hyphae around roots of plants usually with asymbiotic relationship with the plant. They also exist in the little channels and spaces between cells. Endomycorrhizae is when the hyphae grow inside of the cell and grow by breaking through the cell wall. 11. Distinguish among the Zygomycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota. Include a description of the sexual structure that characterizes each group and list some common examples of each group. Zygomycota -Zygotes fungi can form zygosporangia (the organ of the fungi that produce zygotes) that can withstand tremendous environments and one reason is because they are so small. Some could actually be just one cell big. They reproduce using another organ called sporangium, which releases hundreds to thousands of spores (which are haploid (n)). i.e.Pilobolus. -Ascomycota (sac fungi) form sac like structures called asci, which shoot out spores. Then it germinates in nutrient rich environments. The asci are forms larger structures called the ascocarp, which resembles a bud. i.e. Pezizomycotina -Basidiomycota (club fungi) form mushroom reproductive fruiting bodies. They can also produce puffballs that can emit trillions of spores. i.e. Mushrooms and puffballs. Ecological Impacts of Fungi 12. Describe some of the roles of fungi in ecosystems. Some fungi are decomposer. The hyphae of the fungi have a symbiotic relationship with th eplant(s) they are attached to and they break down organic molecules in soil, dung, etc. Some fungi are parasites. They feed off of plants and animals and eventually kill their host. Some are pathogens and help repel diseases. 13. Describe the structure of a lichen. Explain the roles of the fungal component of the lichen.

Lichen is a symbiotic system containing fungi and microorganisms (namely cyanobacteria andalgae). They often appear to be grey, green, or yellow patches growing on ricks. The fungi in the symbiotic relationship provides a shelter for the algae and such to grow, and for protects, fungi them from predators, and shields them from too much sun. The fungus also provides them with transportation using their reproductive clusters called soredia. 14. Explain how lichens may act as pioneers on newly burned soil or volcanic rock. Lichens are great for detecting and catching nutrients in not only the soil but in the air too. So when volcanoes burn the land, lichens could decompose materials and provide both organic and inorganic materials were new organisms like plants and other fungi could grow 15. Describe the role of fungi as agricultural pests Many fungi are parasitic to plants and many of those fungi harm between 10 to 50 percent of agricultural plants. The effects of this parasitic activity greatly harm humans and other animals alike. They are usually poisonous to us and id they end up in our food supply it would bed angerous and even fatal. 16. Define mycosis, and describe some human mycoses. Mycosis- is a fungal infection in an animal. The most common such pathogenic fungus in animals is ringworm (also known as athletes foot). Another example of mycosi is Tinea versicolor. The infection infects the skin of young people, especially the chest, back, and upper arms and legs and is caused that lives in the skin of some adults. 17. Describe three commercial roles played by fungi. Fungi are usually used in or as food. They are also used to make many types of cheeses by giving them unique acids which gives the cheese their unique flavor. Common in baking, yeast is used to make bread. And it can be genetically programmed to produce valuable glycoprotein (like insulin).