By STUDENT
Introduction
Any experiment may he regarded as forming an individual of a population
of experiments which might he performed under the same conditions. A series
of experiments is a sample drawn from this population.
Now any series of experiments is only of value in so far as it enables us to
form a judgment as to the statistical constants of the population to which the
experiments belong. In a greater number of cases the question nally turns on
the value of a mean, either directly, or as the mean dierence between the two
quantities.
If the number of experiments be very large, we may have precise information
as to the value of the mean, but if our sample be small, we have two sources of
uncertainty: (1) owing to the error of random sampling the mean of our series
of experiments deviates more or less widely from the mean of the population,
and (2) the sample is not suciently large to determine what is the law of
distribution of individuals. It is usual, however, to assume a normal distribution,
because, in a very large number of cases, this gives an approximation so close
that a small sample will give no real information as to the manner in which
the population deviates from normality: since some law of distribution must
he assumed it is better to work with a curve whose area and ordinates are
tabled, and whose properties are well known. This assumption is accordingly
made in the present paper, so that its conclusions are not strictly applicable to
populations known not to be normally distributed; yet it appears probable that
the deviation from normality must be very extreme to load to serious error. We
are concerned here solely with the rst of these two sources of uncertainty.
The usual method of determining the probability that the mean of the pop-
ulation lies within a given distance of the mean of the sample is to assume a
normal distribution about the mean of the sample with a standard deviation
equal to s/
R
represent the Rth moment coecient of the distribution of s
2
about
the end of the range where s
2
= 0,
M
1
=
2
(n 1)
n
.
Again
s
4
=
_
S(x
2
1
)
n
_
S(x
1
)
n
__
2
=
_
S(x
2
1
)
n
_
2
2S(x
2
1
)
n
_
S(x
1
)
n
_
2
+
_
S(x
1
)
n
_
4
=
S(x
4
1
)
n
2
+
2S(x
2
1
x
2
2
)
n
2
2S(X
4
1
)
n
3
4S(x
2
1
x
2
2
)
n
3
+
S(x
4
1
)
n
4
+
6S(x
2
1
x
2
2
)
n
4
+ other terms involving odd powers of x
1
, etc. which
will vanish on summation.
Now S(x
4
1
) has n terms, butS(x
2
1
x
2
2
) has
1
2
n(n 1), hence summing for all
samples and dividing by the number of samples, we get
M
2
=
4
n
+
2
2
(n 1)
n
2
4
n
2
2
2
2
(n 1)
n
2
+
4
n
3
+ 3
2
2
(n 1)
n
3
=
4
n
3
{n
2
2n + 1} +
2
2
n
3
(n 1){n
2
2n + 3}.
Now since the distribution of x is normal,
4
= 3
2
2
, hence
M
2
=
2
2
(n 1)
n
3
{3n 3 +n
2
2n + 3} =
2
2
(n 1)(n + 1)
n
2
.
In a similar tedious way I nd
M
3
=
3
2
(n 1)(n + 1)(n + 3)
n
3
and
M
4
=
4
2
(n 1)(n + 1)(n + 3)(n + 5)
n
4
.
3
The law of formation of these moment coecients appears to be a simple
one, but I have not seen my way to a general proof.
If now M
R
be the Rth moment coecient of s
2
about its mean, we have
M
2
=
2
2
(n 1)
n
3
{(n + 1) (n 1)} = 2
2
2
(n 1)
n
2
.
M
3
=
3
2
_
(n 1)(n + 1)(n + 3)
n
3
3(n 1)
n
.
(2(n 1)
n
2
(n 1)
3
n
3
_
=
3
2
(n 1)
n
3
{n
2
+ 4n + 3 6n + 6 n
2
+ 2n 1} = 8
3
2
(n 1)
n
3
,
M
4
=
4
2
n
4
_
(n 1)(n + 1)(n + 3)(n + 5) 32(n 1)
2
12(n 1)
3
(n 1)
4
_
=
4
2
(n 1)
n
4
{n
3
+ 9n
2
+ 23n + 15 32n + 32
12n
2
+ 24n 12 n
3
+ 3n
2
3n + 1}
=
12
4
2
(n 1)(n + 3)
n
4
.
Hence
1
=
M
2
3
M
3
2
=
8
n 1
,
2
=
M
4
M
2
2
=
3(n + 3)
n 1)
,
2
2
3
1
6 =
1
n 1
{6(n + 3) 24 6(n 1)} = 0.
Consequently a curve of Prof. Pearsons Type III may he expected to t the
distribution of s
2
.
The equation referred to an origin at the zero end of the curve will be
y = Cx
p
e
x
,
where
= 2
M
2
M
3
=
4
2
2
(n 1)n
3
8n
2
2
2
(n 1)
=
n
2
2
and
p =
4
1
1 =
n 1
2
1 =
n 3
2
.
Consequently the equation becomes
y = Cx
n3
2
e
nx
2
2
,
which will give the distribution of s
2
.
The area of this curve is C
_
0
x
n3
2
e
nx
2
2
dx = I (say). The rst moment
coecient about the end of the range will therefore be
C
_
0
x
n1
2
e
nx
2
2
dx
I
=
_
C
22
n
x
n1
2
e
nx
2
2
_
x=
x=0
I
+
C
_
0
n1
n
2
x
n3
2
e
nx
2
2
dx
I
.
4
The rst part vanishes at each limit and the second is equal to
n1
n
2
I
I
=
n 1
n
2
.
and we see that the higher moment coecients will he formed by multiplying
successively by
n+1
n
2
,
n+3
n
2
etc., just as appeared to he the law of formation
of M
2
, M
3
, M
4
, etc.
Hence it is probable that the curve found represents the theoretical distri-
bution of s
2
; so that although we have no actual proof we shall assume it to do
so in what follows.
The distribution of s may he found from this, since the frequency of s is
equal to that of s
2
and all that we must do is to compress the base line suitably.
Now if y
1
= (s
2
) be the frequency curve of s
2
and y
2
= (s) be the frequency curve of s,
then
y
1
d(s
2
) = y
2
ds,
y
2
ds = 2y
1
sds,
y
2
= 2sy
1
.
Hence
y
2
= 2Cs(s
2
)
n3
2
e
ns
2
2
2
.
is the distribution of s.
This reduces to
y
2
= 2Cs
n2
e
ns
2
2
2
.
Hence y = Ax
n2
e
s
2
2
2
will give the frequency distribution of standard
deviations of samples of n, taken out of a population distributed normally with
standard deviation
2
. The constant A may he found by equating the area of
the curve as follows:
Area = A
_
0
x
n2
e
nx
2
2
2
dx.
_
Let I
p
represent
_
0
x
p
e
nx
2
2
2
dx.
_
Then
I
p
=
2
n
_
0
x
p1
d
dx
_
e
nx
2
2
2
_
dx
=
2
n
_
x
p1
e
nx
2
2
2
_
x=
x=0
+
2
n
(p 1)
_
0
x
p2
e
x
2
2
2
dx
=
2
n
(p 1)I
p2
,
since the rst part vanishes at both limits.
5
By continuing this process we nd
I
n2
=
_
2
n
_
n2
2
(n 3)(n 5) . . . 3.1I
0
or
I
n2
=
_
2
n
_
n2
2
(n 3)(n 5) . . . 4.2I
1
according n is even or odd.
But I
0
is
_
0
e
nx
2
2
2
dx =
_
_
2n
_
,
and I
1
is
_
0
xe
nx
2
2sigma
2
dx =
_
2
n
e
nx
2
2
2
_
x=
x=0
=
2
n
.
Hence if n be even,
A =
Area
(n 3)(n 5) . . . 3.1
_
_
2
_ _
2
n
_
n1
2
,
while is n be odd
A =
Area
(n 3)(n 5) . . . 4.2
_
2
n
_
n1
2
.
Hence the equation may be written
y =
N
(n 3)(n 5) . . . 3.1
_
2
_
_
n
2
_
n1
2
x
n2
e
nx
2
2
2
(n even)
or
y =
N
(n 3)(n 5) . . . 4.2
_
n
2
_
n1
2
x
n2
e
nx
2
2
2
(n odd)
where N as usual represents the total frequency.
Section II
To show that there is no correlation between (a) the distance of the mean
of a sample from the mean of the population and (b) the standard deviation of
a sample with normal distribution.
(1) Clearly positive and negative positions of the mean of the sample are
equally likely, and hence there cannot be correlation between the absolute value
of the distance of the mean from the mean of the population and the standard
6
deviation, but (2) there might be correlation between the square of the distance
and the square of the standard deviation. Let
u
2
=
_
S(x
1
)
n
_
2
and s
2
=
S(x
2
1
)
n
_
S(x
1
)
n
_
2
.
Then if m
1
, M
1
be the mean values of u
2
and s
z
, we have by the preceding part
M
1
=
2
(n 1)
n
and m
1
=
2
n
.
Now
u
2
s
2
=
S(x
2
1
)
n
_
S(x
1
)
n
_
2
_
S(x
1
)
n
_
4
=
_
S(x
2
1
)
n
_
2
+ 2
S(x
1
x
2
).S(x
2
1
)
n
3
S(x
4
1
)
n
4
6S(x
2
1
x
2
2
)
n
4
other terms of odd order which will vanish on summation.
Summing for all values and dividing by the number of cases we get
R
u
2
s2
u
2
s
2 +m
1
M
1
=
4
n
2
+
2
2
(n 1)
n
2
4
n
3
3
2
2
(n 1)
n
3
,
where R
u
2
s
2 is the correlation between u
2
and s
2
.
R
u
2
s2
u
2
s
2 +
2
2
(n 1)
n
2
=
2
2
(n 1)
n
3
{3 +n 3} =
2
2
(n 1)
n
2
.
Hence R
u
2
s2
u
2
s
2 = 0, or there is no correlation between u
2
and s
2
.
Section III
To nd the equation representing the frequency distribution of the means of
samples of n drawn from a normal population, the mean being expressed in
terms of the standard deviation of the sample.
We have y =
C
n1
s
n2
e
nx
2
2
2
as the equation representing the distribution
of s, the standard deviation of a sample of n, when the samples are drawn from
a normal population with standard deviation s.
Now the means of these samples of n are distributed according to the equa-
tion
1
y =
_
(n)N
_
(2)
e
nx
2
2
2
,
and we have shown that there is no correlation between x, the distance of the
mean of the sample, and s, the standard deviation of the sample.
1
Airy, Theory of Errors of Observations, Part II, 6.
7
Now let us suppose x measured in terms of s, i.e. let us nd the distribution
of z = x/s.
If we have y
1
= (x) and y
2
= (z) as the equations representing the
frequency of x and of z respectively, then
y
1
dx = y
2
dz = y
3
dx
s
,
y
2
= sy
1
.
Hence
y =
N
_
(n)s
_
(2)
e
ns
2
z
2
2
2
is the equation representing the distribution of z for samples of n with standard
deviation s.
Now the chance that s lies between s and s +ds is
_
s+ds
s
C
n1
s
n2
e
ns
2
2
2
ds
_
0
C
n1
s
n2
e
ns
2
2
2
ds
which represents the N in the above equation.
Hence the distribution of z due to values of s which lie between s and s +ds
is
y =
_
s+ds
s
C
n
_
_
n
2
_
s
n1
e
ns
2
(1+z
2
)
2
2
ds
_
0
C
n1
s
n2
e
ns
2
2
2
ds
=
_
_
n
2
_
_
s+ds
s
C
n
s
n1
e
ns
2
(1+z
2
)
2
2
ds
_
0
C
n2
s
n2
e
ns
2
2
2
ds
and summing for all values of s we have as an equation giving the distribution
of z
y =
_
_
n
2
_
_
s+ds
s
C
n
s
n1
e
ns
2
(1+z
2
)
2
2
ds
_
0
C
n2
s
n2
e
ns
2
2
2
ds
.
By what we have already proved this reduces to
y =
1
2
n 2
n 3
.
n 4
n 5
. . .
5
4
.
3
2
(1 +z
2
)
1
2
n
, if n be odd
and to
y =
1
2
n 2
n 3
.
n 4
n 5
. . .
4
3
.
2
21
(1 +z
2
)
1
2
n
, if n be even
Since this equation is independent of it will give the distribution of the
distance of the mean of a sample from the mean of the population expressed in
terms of the standard deviation of the sample for any normal population.
8
Section IV. Some Properties of the Standard
Deviation Frequency Curve
By a similar method to that adopted for nding the constant we may nd
the mean and moments: thus the mean is at I
n1
/I
n2
,
which is equal to
n 2
n 3
.
n 4
n 5
. . .
2
1
_
2
n
, if n be even,
or
n 2
n 3
.
n 4
n 5
. . .
3
2
_
_
2
_
n
, if n be odd .
The second moment about the end of the range is
I
n
I
n2
=
(n 1)
2
n
.
The third moment about the end of the range is equal to
I
n+1
I
n2
=
I
n+1
I
n1
.
In 1
I
n2
=
2
the mean.
The fourth moment about the end of the range is equal to
I
n+2
I
n2
=
(n 1)(n + 1)
n
2
4
.
If we write the distance of the mean from the end of the range D/
n and
the moments about the end of the range
1
,
2
, etc.,
then
1
=
D
n
,
2
=
n 1
n
2
,
3
=
D
3
n
,
4
=
N
2
1
n
4
.
From this we get the moments about the mean:
2
=
2
n
(n 1 D
2
),
3
=
3
n
n
{nD3(n 1)D + 2D
2
} =
3
D
n
n
{2D
2
2n + 3},
4
=
2
n
2
{n
2
1 4D
2
n + 6(n 1)D
2
3D
4
}
=
4
n
2
{n
2
1 D
2
(3D
2
2n + 6)}.
It is of interest to nd out what these become when n is large.
9
In order to do this we must nd out what is the value of D.
Now Walliss expression for derived from the innite product value of sinx
is
2
(2n + 1) =
2
2
.4
2
.6
2
. . . (2n)
2
1
2
3
2
5
2
. . . (2n 1)
2
.
If we assume a quantity
_
= a
0
+
a1
n
+ etc.
_
which we may add to the 2n+1
in order to make the expression approximate more rapidly to the truth, it is easy
to show that =
1
2
+
1
16n
etc., and we get
2
2
_
2n +
1
2
+
1
16n
_
=
2
2
.4
2
.6
2
. . . (2n)
2
1
2
3
2
5
2
. . . (2n 1)
2
.
From this we nd that whether n be even or odd D
2
approximates to n
3
2
+
1
8n
when n is large.
Substituting this value of D we get
2
=
2
2n
_
1
1
4n
_
,
2
=
3
_
_
1
3
2n
+
1
16n
2
_
4n
2
,
4
=
3
4
4n
2
_
1 +
1
2n
1
16n
2
_
.
Consequently the value of the standard deviation of a standard deviation
which we have found
_
(2n)
{1(1/4n)}
_
becomes the same as that found for
the normal curve by Prof. Pearson {/(2n)} when n is large enough to neglect
the 1/4n in comparison with 1.
Neglecting terms of lower order than 1/n, we nd
1
=
2n 3
n(4n 3)
, )
2
= 3
_
1
1
2n
__
1 +
1
2n
_
.
Consequently, as n increases,
2
very soon approaches the value 3 of the
normal curve, but
1
vanishes more slowly, so that the curve remains slightly
skew.
Diagram I shows the theoretical distribution of the standard deviations found
from samples of 10.
Section V. Some Properties of the Curve
y =
n 2
n 3
.
n 4
n 5
. . .
_
4
3
.
2
if n be even
5
4
.
3
2
.
1
2
if n be odd
_
(1 +z
2
)
1
2
n
Writing z = tan the equation becomes y =
n2
n3
.
n4
n5
. . . etc. cos
n
, which
aords an easy way of drawing the curve. Also dz = d/ cos
2
.
2
This expression will be found to give a much closer approximation to than Walliss
10
Hence to nd the area of the curve between any limits we must nd
n 2
n 3
.
n 4
n 5
. . . etc.
_
cos
n2
d
=
n 2
n 3
.
n 4
n 5
. . . etc.
_
n 3
n 2
_
cos
n4
d +
_
cos
n3
sin
n 2
__
=
n 2
n 3
.
n 4
n 5
. . . etc.
_
cos
n4
d +
1
n 3
n 4
n 5
. . . etc.[cos
n3
sin],
and by continuing the process the integral may he evaluated.
For example, if we wish to nd the area between 0 and for n = 8 we have
Area =
6
5
.
4
3
.
2
1
.
1
_
0
cos
6
d
=
4
3
.
2
_
0
cos
4
d +
1
5
.
4
3
.
2
cos
5
sin
=
+
1
cos sin +
1
3
.
2
cos
3
sin +
1
5
.
4
3
.
2
cos
5
sin
and it will be noticed that for n = 10 we shall merely have to add to this same
expression the term
1
7
.
6
5
.
4
3
.
2
cos
7
sin.
11
The tables at the end of the paper give the area between and z
_
or =
2
and = tan
1
z
_
.
This is the same as 0.5 + the area between = 0, and = tan
1
z, and as
the whole area of the curve is equal to 1, the tables give the probability that the
mean of the sample does not dier by more than z times the standard deviation
of the sample from the mean of the population.
The whole area of the curve is equal to
n 2
n 3
.
n 4
n 5
. . . etc.
_
+
1
2
1
2
cos
n2
d
and since all the parts between the limits vanish at both limits this reduces to
1.
Similarly, the second moment coecient is equal to
n 2
n 3
.
n 4
n 5
. . . etc.
_
+
1
2
1
2
cos
n2
tan
2
d
=
n 2
n 3
.
n 4
n 5
. . . etc.
_
+
1
2
1
2
(cos
n4
cos
n2
)d
=
n 2
n 3
1 =
1
n 3
.
Hence the standard deviation of the curve is 1/
_
(n 3). The fourth mo-
ment coecient is equal to
n 2
n 3
.
n 4
n 5
. . . etc.
_
+
1
2
1
2
cos
n2
tan
4
d
=
n 2
n 3
.
n 4
n 5
. . . etc.
_
+
1
2
1
2
(cos
n6
2 cos
n4
+ cos
n2
)d
=
n 2
n 3
.
n 4
n 5
2(n 2)
n 3
+ 1 =
3
(n 3)(n 5)
.
The odd moments are of course zero, an the curve is symmetrical, so
1
= 0,
2
=
3(n 3)
n 5
= 3 +
6
n 5
.
Hence as it increases the curve approaches the normal curve whose standard
deviation is 1/
_
(n 3).
2
, however, is always greater than 3, indicating that large deviations are
mere common than in the normal curve.
I have tabled the area for the normal curve with standard deviation 1/
7
so as to compare, with my curve for n = 10
3
. It will be seen that odds laid
3
See p. 29
12
according to either table would not seriously dier till we reach z = 0.8, where
the odds are about 50 to 1 that the mean is within that limit: beyond that
the normal curve gives a false feeling of security, for example, according to the
normal curve it is 99,986 to 14 (say 7000 to 1) that the mean of the population
lies between and +1.3s, whereas the real odds are only 99,819 to 181 (about
550 to 1).
Now 50 to 1 corresponds to three times the probable error in the normal
curve and for most purposes it would be considered signicant; for this reason I
have only tabled my curves for values of n not greater than 10, but have given
the n = 9 and n = 10 tables to one further place of decimals. They can he used
as foundations for nding values for larger samples.
4
The table for n = 2 can be readily constructed by looking out = tan
1
z
in Chamberss tables and then 0.5 +/ gives the corresponding value.
Similarly
1
2
sin + 0.5 gives the values when n = 3.
There are two points of interest in the n = 2 curve. Here s is equal to half
the distance between the two observations, tan
1 s
s
=
4
, so that between +s
and z lies 2
4
1
5
6
3
4
1
2
1
2
cos
8
sin :
if n = 13 we add as well
9
10
7
8
5
6
3
4
1
2
1
2
cos
10
sin, and so on.
13
moment coecient is
1
_
+
1
2
=
1
2
tan
2
d =
1
[tan ]
+
1
2
=
=
1
2
= ,
or the standard deviation is innite while the probable error is nite.
Section VI. Practical Test of the foregoing
Equations
Before I bad succeeded in solving my problem analytically, I had endeavoured
to do so empirically. The material used was a correlation table containing the
height and left middle nger measurements of 3000 criminals, from a paper by
W. R. Macdonnell (Biometrika, i, p. 219). The measurements were written
out on 3000 pieces of cardboard, which were then very thoroughly shued and
drawn at random. As each card was drawn its numbers were written down in
a book, which thus contains the measurements of 3000 criminals in a random
order. Finally, each consecutive set of 4 was taken as a sample750 in alland
the mean, standard deviation, and correlation
5
of each sample determined. The
dierence between the mean of each sample and the mean of the population was
then divided by the standard deviation of the sample, giving us the z of Section
III.
This provides us with two sets of 750 standard deviations and two sets of 750
zs on which to test the theoretical results arrived at. The height and left middle
nger correlation table was chosen because the distribution of both was approx-
imately normal and the correlation was fairly high. Both frequency curves, how-
ever, deviate slightly from normality, the constants being for height
1
= 0.0026,
2
= 3.176, and for left middle nger lengths
1
= 0.0030,
2
= 3.140, and in
consequence there is a tendency for a certain number of larger standard devia-
tions to occur than if the distributions wore normal. This, however, appears to
make very little dierence to the distribution of z.
Another thing which interferes with the comparison is the comparatively
large groups in which the observations occur. The heights are arranged in 1
inch groups, the standard deviation being only 2.54 inches. while, the nger
lengths wore originally grouped in millimetres, but unfortunately I did not at
the time see the importance of having a smaller unit and condensed them into
2 millimetre groups, in terms of which the standard deviation is 2.74.
Several curious results follow from taking samples of 4 from material disposed
in such wide groups. The following points may be noticed:
(1) The means only occur as multiples of 0.25. (2) The standard deviations
occur as the square roots of the following types of numbers: n, n+0.10, n+0.25,
n + 0.50, n + 0.69, 2n + 0.75.
(3) A standard deviation belonging to one of these groups can only be as-
sociated with a mean of a particular kind; thus a standard deviation of
2 can
5
I hope to publish the results of the correlation work shortly.
14
only occur if the mean diers by a whole number from the group we take as
origin, while
(2)
2
x
2
e
2x
2
2
Scale in terms of standard deviations of population
Calculated frequency
1
1
2
10
1
2
27 45
1
2
64
1
2
78
1
2
87 88 81
1
2
71 58 45 33 23 15 9
1
2
5
1
2
7
Observed frequency
3 14
1
2
24
1
2
37
1
2
107 67 73 77 77
1
2
64
1
2
49
1
2
35 28 12
1
2
9 11
1
2
7
Dierence
+1
1
2
+4 2
1
2
8 +42
1
2
11
1
2
14 11 4 7 5
1
2
+4
1
2
+2 +5 2
1
2
1
2
+6 0
Whence
2
= 48.06, P = 0.00006 (about).
In tabling the observed frequency, values between 0.0125 and 0.0875 were
included in one group, while between 0.0875 and 0.012.5 they were divided over
the two groups. As an instance of the irregularity due to grouping I may mention
15
that there were 31 cases of standard deviations 1.30 (in terms of the grouping)
which is 0.5117 in terms of the standard deviation of the population, and they
wore therefore divided over the groups 0.4 to 0.5 and 0.5 to 0.6. Had they all
been counted in groups 0.5 to 0.6
2
would have fallen to 20.85 and P would
have risen to 0.03. The
2
test presupposes random sampling from a frequency
following the given law, but this we have not got owing to the interference of
the grouping.
When, however, we test the zs where the grouping has not had so much
eect, we nd a close correspondence between the theory and the actual result.
There were three cases of innite values of z which, for the reasons given
above, were given the next largest values which occurred, namely +6 or 6. The
rest were divided into groups of 0.1; 0.04, 0.05 and 0.06, being divided between
the two groups on either side.
The calculated value for the standard deviation of the frequency curve was
1 (0.0171), while the observed was 1.030. The value of the standard deviation
is really innite, as the fourth moment coecient is innite, but as we have
arbitrarily limited the innite cases we may take as an approximation 1/
1500
from which the value of the probable error given above is obtained. The t of
the curve is as follows:
Comparison of Fit. Theoretical Equation: y =
2N
cos
4
, z = tan
Scale of z
Calculated frequency
5 9
1
2
13
1
2
34
1
2
44
1
2
78
1
2
119 141 78
1
2
44
1
2
34
1
2
13
1
2
13
1
2
9
1
2
5
Observed frequency
9 14
1
2
11
1
2
33 43
1
2
70
1
2
119
1
2
151
1
2
122 67
1
2
49 26
1
2
16 10 6
Dierence
+4 +4 2 2 1
1
2
1 8 +
1
2
+10
1
2
+3 11 +4
1
2
8 +2
1
2
+
1
2
Whence
2
= 12.44, P = 0.56.
This is very satisfactory, especially when we consider that as a rule obser-
vations are tested against curves tted from the mean and one or more other
moments of the observations, so that considerable correspondence is only to ])c
expected; while this curve is exposed to the full errors of random sampling, its
constants having been calculated quite apart from the observations.
The left middle nger samples show much the same features as those of
the height, but as the grouping is not so large compared to the variability the
curves t the observations more closely. Diagrams III
6
and IV give the standard
deviations of the zs for the set of samples. The results are as follows:
6
There are three small mistakes in plotting the observed values in Diagram III, which make
the t appear worse than it really is
16
Mean value of standard deviations: Calculated 2.186 0.023
Observed 2.179
Dierence = 0.007
Standard deviation of standard deviations: Calculated 0.9224 0.016
Observed 0.9802
Dierence = +0.0578
Comparison of Fit. Theoretical Equation: y =
16750
(2)
2
x
2
e
2x
2
2
Scale in terms of standard deviations of population
1
1
2
10
1
2
27 45
1
2
64
1
2
78
1
2
87 88 81
1
2
71 58 45 33 23 15 9
1
2
5
1
2
7
Calculated frequency
2 14 27
1
2
51 64
1
2
91 94
1
2
68
1
2
65
1
2
73 48
1
2
40
1
2
42
1
2
20 22
1
2
12 5 7
1
2
Observed frequency
+
1
2
+3
1
2
+
1
2
+5
1
2
+12
1
2
+7
1
2
19
1
2
16 +2 9
1
2
4
1
2
+9
1
2
3 +7
1
2
+2
1
2
1
2
+
1
2
Whence
2
= 21.80, P = 0.19.
Value of standard deviation: Calculated 1(0.017)
Observed 0.982
Dierence = 0.018
Comparison of Fit. Theoretical Equation: y =
2N
cos
4
, z = tan
Scale of z
Calculated frequency
5 9
1
2
13
1
2
34
1
2
44
1
2
78
1
2
119 141 119 78
1
2
44
1
2
34
1
2
13
1
2
9
1
2
5
Observed frequency
4 15
1
2
18 33
1
2
44 75 122 138 120
1
2
71 46
1
2
36 11 9 6
Dierence
1 +6 +4
1
2
1
1
2
3
1
2
+3 3 +1
1
2
7
1
2
+2 +1
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
+1
Whence
2
= 7.39, P = 0.92.
A very close t.
We see then that if the distribution is approximately normal our theory
gives us a satisfactory measure of the certainty to be derived from a small
sample in both the cases we have tested; but we have an indication that a ne
grouping is of advantage. If the distribution is not normal, the mean and the
standard deviation of a sample will be positively correlated, so although both
will have greater variability, yet they will tend to counteract one another, a
mean deriving largely from the general mean tending to be divided by a larger
standard deviation. Consequently, I believe that the table given in Section VII
below may be used in estimating the degree of certainty arrived at by the mean
of a few experiments, in the case of most laboratory or biological work where
the distributions are as a rule of a cocked hat type and so suciently nearly
normal
17
18
Section VII. Tables of
n2
n3
.
n4
n5
. . .
_
3
2
.
1
2
n odd
2
1
.
1
n even
_
_
tan
1
z
1
2
cos
n2
d
for values of n from 4 to 10 inclusive
Together with
(2)
_
x
7x
2
2
dx for comparison when n = 10
z
`
=
x
s
n = 4 n = 5 n = 6 n = 7 n = 8 n = 9 n = 10 For comparison
(2)
R
x
7x
2
2 dx
+ 0.5 =
64
39
180
= 0.859,
so that the odds are about 6 to 1 that small corn gives a better yield than large.
These odds
9
are those which would be laid, and laid rigidly, by a man whose
only knowledge of the matter was contained in the two experiments. Anyone
conversant with pot culture would however know that the dierence between the
9
[Through a numerical slip, now corrected, Student had given the odds as 33 to 1 and it
is to this gure that the remarks in this paragraph relate.
22
two results would generally be greater and would correspondingly moderate the
certainty of his conclusion. In point of fact a large-scale experiment conrmed
this result, the small corn yielding shout 15% more than the large.
I will conclude with an example which comes beyond the range of the tables,
there being eleven experiments.
To test whether it is of advantage to kiln-dry barley seed before sowing,
seven varieties of barley wore sown (both kiln-dried and not kiln-dried in 1899
and four in 1900; the results are given in the table.
Lb. head corn per acre Price of head corn in Cwt. straw per acre Value of crop per acre
shillings per quarter in shillings
N.K.D. N.D. Diff. N.K.D. N.D. Diff. N.K.D. N.D. Diff. N.K.D. N.D. Diff.
1903 2009 +106 26
1
2
1
2
0 19
1
2
25 +5
1
2
140
1
2
152 +11
1
2
1935 1915 20 28 26
1
2
1
1
2
22
1
2
24 +1
1
2
152
1
2
145 7
1
2
1910 2011 +101 29
1
2
28
1
2
1 23 24 +1 158
1
2
161 +2
1
2
1899 2496 2463 33 30 29 1 23 28 +5 204
1
2
199
1
2
5
2108 2180 + 72 27
1
2
27
1
2
22
1
2
22
1
2
0 162 142 +2
1961 1925 36 26 26 0 19
1
2
419
1
2
1
2
142 139
1
2
2
1
2
2060 2122 + 62 29 26 3 24
1
2
22
1
2
2
1
2
168 155 13
1444 1482 + 38 29
1
2
28
1
2
1 15
1
2
16 +
1
2
118 117
1
2
1
2
1900 1612 1443 70 28
1
2
28
1
2
18 17
1
2
1
2
128
1
2
121 7
1
2
1316 1443 +127 30 29 1 14
1
2
15
1
2
+1
1
2
109
1
2
116
1
2
+7
1511 1535 + 24 28
1
2
28
1
2
17 17
1
2
+
1
2
120 120
1
2
+
1
2
Average 1841.5 1875.2 +33.7 28.45 27.55 0.91 19.95 21.05 +1.10 145.82 144.68 +1.14
Standard . . . . . . 63.1 . . . . . . 0.79 . . . . . . 2.25 . . . . . . 6.67
deviation
Standard
deviation . . . . . . 63.1 . . . . . . 0.79 . . . . . . 2.25 . . . . . . 6.67
8
It will he noticed that the kiln-dried seed gave on an average the larger yield.
of corn and straw, but that the quality was almost always inferior. At rst sight
this might be supposed to be due to superior germinating power in the kiln-dried
seed, but my farming friends tell me that the eect of this would be that the
kiln-dried seed would produce the better quality barley. Dr Voelcker draws the
conclusion: In such seasons as 1899 and 1900 there is no particular advantage
in kiln-drying before mowing. Our examination completely justies this and
adds and the quality of the resulting barley is inferior though the yield may be
greater.
In this case I propose to use the approximation given by the normal curve
with standard deviation s/