Prajnaparamita

(A short notes on Prajnaparamita)

If there is any religion that would cope with modern
Scientific needs it would be Buddhism
Albert Einstein

Bikramshila Mahabihar
Simhakalpanagar
(Bhagwan Bahal, Thamel)

Legendary story of Lhasa Caravan

The Flying White Horse Avalokiteswora
Garud Bhagwan, Simhasarthabahu

Compiled by

Damodar Pradhan
Monumental Guide
Buddha Era 2552 Nepal Era 1132
Bikram Era 2068, 2012 A.D

1|Page

The Sanskrit word Prajnaparamita literally translated signifies this book as

"the Perfection of Transcendent Wisdom (Perfect wisdom beyond ordinary
limits / Prajna - wisdom and paramita perfect or perfection)
Prajnapramita is a central concept in Mahayana Buddhism and its practice
is believed to be the essential elements of the Bodhisattva Path. The
practice of Prajnaparamita is described in the Prajnaparamita Sutras, which
vary widely in length and written by different scholars. Tara and Prajnaparamita are both referred as mother of all Buddha, since Buddha is born
from wisdom.
The Dharma is classified as inferior and superior according to the disciple's
grade. In Buddhism the disciples are being classified into four different
stage of human being for example ordinary men; the stage of sainthood;
Saint and bodhisattvas. In Buddhism, Dharma is referred to the teaching of
Buddha, the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Noble Path, the three Marks
of Existence, and other guidelines. The main motif is to achieve the
freedom and liberation from suffering and understand the state of mind to
realize the supreme happiness, the natural joy and nirvana. The happiness
is classified as Ananda (Joy), Paramanda (Supreme Joy), Virmananda
(Absence of Joy), and Sahajanand (Natural Joy)
The Four Noble Truths (Sanskrit: catvari aryasatyani)
The Four Noble Truths are an important principle in Buddhism, classically
taught by the Buddha in the Dharmacakra Pravartana Sutra.
Four Noble Truths is referred to the state of mind Dukkha (Suffering),
Samudaya (the cause of suffering), Nirodha (free from suffering), Marga (a
way to end suffering). The Four Noble Truths are formulated according to
the ancient medical model as follows: 1) There is an illness
2) The diagnosis there is a cause of illness
3) There is a possibility of a cure for the illness
4) There is treatment for the illness
(The prescription that can relieves the illness)
The basic teachings of the Four Noble Truths are:
2|Page

1) The First Noble Truth: Dukkha

Dukkha usually is translated as suffering. In life, we have illness, poverty,
disease, old age and death. We cannot keep what we like and avoid what
we do not like. It is universal truth that the happiness we do enjoy is
temporary and we do need to suffer.
.

2) The Second Noble Truth: Samudaya

The main cause of suffering is desire & illusions which is mainly because of
ignorance. Wanting life, death, pleasure and things all lead to suffering
.

3) The Third Noble Truth: Nirodha

Suffering can get stopped if we can get rid of the state of mind, desire,
cravings or hunger. There is a state of mind free from suffering if we can
develop insight into the true nature of phenomena (or reality) and to
eradicate greed, feeling of intense dislike, and delusion (a false belief or
opinion).
4) The Fourth Noble Truth: Marga
There is a way to end suffering, we must end our cravings. The Noble
Eightfold Path is the only noble way that leads to end the suffering (dukkha
or carving) and achieve self-awakening. It is also known as the Middle Path
or Middle Way.
The Eightfold Path
Noble Eightfold Path can only work if a person chooses to apply it to their
lives, and takes full responsibility in following the steps. The Noble
Eightfold Path is a very systematic and methodical approach to solve the
problem of suffering in life, and achieving a state of wisdom, peace and
Nirvana. The programmer first develops character and personality, and then
develops ethical conduct and restraint which promote concentration.
Concentration and mindfulness help make the mind free from ignorance
and blossom into wisdom (access higher knowledge).
Wisdom brings a clear understanding of the truth about how things really
are. This leads craving and desire to end from the mind (detachment) that
brings freedom from suffering and the end of suffering brings Supreme
Happiness. The Noble Eightfold Path describes the teachings as a formula
3|Page

which is described in simple steps and includes both physical and mental
treatment for getting a end of suffering. The goal of the Noble Eightfold
Path is to bring a true understanding of the Four Noble Truths and deliver
their ultimate Teaching - the end of suffering. The Path develops character
and personality by showing the way to live a virtuous life, develop wisdom
and finally to attain the highest qualities of a human being and develop the
Buddhahood. This is the ultimate goal of the Eightfold Path and all eight
ways of practice must be followed in order to attain it. The Path is
specifically aimed at developing behavior, mind and knowledge and the
eight steps are divided into those three ways of practice that is Good
Conduct, Mental Development and Wisdom. It is the Noble Eightfold Path
that helps to realize happiness by understanding the Right Speech, Right
Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, Right
Concentration, Right Attitude and Right View.
Truth is found through the Middle Way by following Eightfold Noble Path as
stated below:
.

1) Right Viewpoint or right vision or Understanding

(samyag-dristi, samma-dristi)
Correct thought by avoiding sharp desire - extreme desire to acquire, the
wish to harm others and wrong views (thinking as if the actions have no
effect or say I have no problem so there is no ways to end suffering etc.)
Right view begins with the concept of knowledge with reference to
suffering, its origin, the main cause and the solution to get rid of suffering.
Birth, aging, sickness, death, sorrow, pain, grief, distress, and something
that causes extreme sadness are suffering. Not being able to obtain what
one wants is also suffering.
Wrong view arising from ignorance, is the precondition for wrong intention,
wrong speech, wrong action, wrong livelihood, wrong effort, wrong
awareness of one's own existence (mindfulness), and wrong concentration.
The practitioner should use right effort to leave completely and finally the
wrong view and to enter into right view. Right mindfulness is used to clear
.

4|Page

one's path of the majority of unreasonable thinking and confusion. In this

way, right view becomes a route to liberation rather than an obstacle.
Birth, aging, sickness, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, distress, and
despair are the different form of suffering. Not being able to obtain what
one wants is also suffering. The way leading to the cessation of suffering is
the noble eightfold path.
2)Right Attitude, Right intention, right liberation, Right intention
(samyak - samkalpa, samma-samkalpa)
Commitment to mental value or expressing moral approval or moral
philosophy Correct speech: avoid lying, harass speech (while having
difference of opinion do not use harass speech) and idle talk or rumor.
Right intention can also be known as right thought, right resolve, right
conception, right aspiration or the exertion of our own will to change.
Correct understanding of right view will help the practitioner to discern the
differences between right intention and wrong intention. Ethical conduct is
used primarily to facilitate mental purification.
Commitment to mental value or expressing moral approval or moral
philosophy and correct speech - avoid lying; harass speech and idle talk or
rumor. (While having difference of opinion do not use harass speech?)
Right intention can also be known as right thought, right resolve, right
conception, right aspiration or the physical and mental effort to change our
own will. Correct understanding of right view will help the practitioner to
understand the differences between right intention and wrong intention.
Ethical conduct is used primarily to facilitate mental purification.
3) Right speech (samyag-vac, samma-vaca)
The power of speech is a unique gift of man. It is a power of speech that
helps to bring harmony, happiness and wisdom. Speak in a truthful way
without harming others; and to grow worse with unreasonable or wrong
logic. If it is abused it can bring ignorance, delusion, pain and deceit. Right
Speech is about controlling the abuse of speech and to control the words
(while having difference of opinion do not use harass speech). It teaches to
avoid lies, tale bearing, harsh words and idle talk or rumor and practice
speaking truth, gentle words and sensibly and meaningful speech.
5|Page

Right speech deals with the way in which a Buddhist practitioner would
best make use of their words, and to get rid of divisive speech, abusive
speech, and lying.
4. Right action (samyak-karmanta, samma-kammanta)
Right action can also be translated as right conduct. As such, the
practitioner should train oneself to be morally upright in one's activities,
not acting in ways that would be corrupt or bring harm to oneself or to
others. Simple and healthy action, avoid action that would harm others,
avoid killing, stealing and sexual misconduct. Right Action is concerned
with what we do; avoiding actions that damage ourselves and others.
Simple and healthy action, avoid action that would harm others.
To understand the Law of Cause and Effect (Not to destroy any life, not to
steal or commit adultery) Simple and healthy action, avoid action that
would harm others, avoid killing, stealing and sexual misconduct. Right
Action is concerned with what we do; avoiding actions that damage
ourselves and others. Simple and healthy action, avoid action that would
harm others. Correct livelihood: try to make a living with the above attitude
of thought, speech and actions.
5) Right Livelihood: (samyag-ajiva, samma-ajiva)
Right Livelihood shows the way for a person to choose the best way to
become a useful, productive citizen and bring social and economic
progress. Buddhist Teachings advise against harmful professions such as
trading in weapons, living beings, flesh, intoxicants and poison.
Understanding and developing profession does not harm in any way
oneself nor others. Try to make a living with the above attitude of thought,
speech and actions to understand and develop genuine wisdom. Avoid
occupations that bring harm to oneself and others. Understanding and
developing profession and genuine wisdom, does not harm in any way
oneself nor others, directly or indirectly (to understand and develop
genuine wisdom). Avoid occupations of soldiering, fishing, hunting, and
teach against cunning, cheating and gambling. Understanding and
developing profession does not harm in any way oneself nor others. Try to
6|Page

make a living with the above attitude of thought, speech and actions to
understand and develop genuine wisdom. Avoid occupations that bring
harm to oneself and others.
This means that practitioners ought not to engage in trades or occupations
which, either directly or indirectly, result in harm for other living beings.
Samadhi: Samadhi is literally translated as mental concentration; it is
achieved through training in the higher consciousness which brings the
calm and collectedness needed to develop true wisdom by direct
experience.
(The following last three aspects refer mainly to the practice of meditation)
6) Right Effort: (samyag-vyayama, sammavayam)
Right effort can also be translated as right endeavor or try to do seriously
or continually.
In this factor, the practitioners should make a persisting effort to abandon
all the wrong and harmful thoughts, words, and deeds. The practitioner
should instead be persisting in giving rise to what would be good and
useful to themselves and others in their thoughts, words, and deeds,
without a thought for the difficulty or causing you to feel tired. Right Effort
is earnestly doing one's best in the right direction which is fourfold;
1. Avoid evil and unwholesome states of mind from arising
2. Overcome evil and unwholesome states of mind already present
3. Cause good and wholesome states of mind not yet present to arise
4. Develop and perfect such states of mind already present
Try again and again to make an effort to improve the belief
(To continue a joyful belief even though it is difficult - Perseverance)
7. Right mindfulness (samyak-smti, samma-sati)
The mind is deliberately kept at the level of bare attention, a detached
observation of what is happening within us and around us in the present
moment. In the practice of right mindfulness the mind is trained to remain
in the present, open, quiet, and alert, to look carefully at the present
7|Page

event. All judgments and interpretations have to be suspended, or if they

occur, just registered and dropped.
Right mindfulness also translated as right memory, right awareness or right
attention. Here, practitioners should constantly keep their minds alert to
phenomena that affect the body and mind. They should be mindful and
deliberate, making sure not to act or speak due to inattention or
forgetfulness.
The mind is deliberately kept at the level of bare attention, a detached
observation of what is happening within us and around us in the present
moment. In the practice of right mindfulness the mind is trained to remain
in the present, open, quiet, and alert, contemplating the present event. All
judgments and interpretations have to be suspended, or if they occur, just
registered and dropped.
Right Mindfulness focuses us on the truth about what is happening in the
body, mental feelings and thoughts etc. Right Concentration is a
development of this attention, enabling to develop the mind that brings the
strengths and freedoms including the clarity of mind and calmness to stay
on the path of Good Conduct. Mental ability to see things with clear
knowledge or the sense of one's personal or collective identity or
awareness, try to be aware of the "here and now" instead of "there and
then"
8) Right Meditation or Mindfulness. samyak-samadhi, samma-samadhi
Right knowledge is seeing things as they really are by direct experience,
not as they appear to be, nor as the practitioner wants them to be, but as
they truly are. Right Mindfulness focuses us on the truth about what is
happening in the body, mental feelings and thoughts etc. Right
Concentration is a development of this attention, enabling to develop the
mind that brings the strengths and freedoms including the clarity of mind
and excited to stay on the path of Good Conduct. Mental ability to see
things with clear knowledge or the sense of one's personal or collective
identity or awareness, try to be aware of the "here and now" instead of
"there and then"
8|Page

Correct concentration: to keep a steady, calm and attentive state of mind

(universal emptiness) or the Natural Joy. To realize the true nature of
things the mind need to be steady and calm. The practice of developing
Right View is to distinguishing between right and wrong, good and bad that
leads to a complete understanding of the Four Noble Truths. Right View is
free from delusion and ignorance and moves very easily into deep wisdom,
clear sight and the ego disappear which leads to the stage of
enlightenment and the ego gets disappear.
These two factors are the end result of correctly practicing the noble
eightfold path, which arise during the practice of right concentration. The
first to arise is right knowledge: this is where deep insight into the ultimate
reality arises. The last to arise is right liberation: this is where selfawakening occurs and the practitioner has reached the pinnacle of their
practice.
Samadhi: mental discipline, meditation, concentration
Samadhi is literally translated as "concentration", it is achieved through
training in the higher consciousness, which brings the calm and confidence
needed to develop true wisdom by direct experience.
Traditionally, the practice of samadhi can be developed through
mindfulness of breathing (anapanasati), through visual objects (kasina),
and through repetition of phrases (mantra). Samadhi is used to suppress
the different kinds of confusion of mind to get enter into jhana. Jhana is an
instrument used for developing wisdom by cultivating insight and using it
to examine true nature of phenomena with understanding and activities of
thinking. This leads to cutting off the unclean thoughts by realizing the
dharma and, finally self-awakening. During the practice of right
concentration, the practitioner will need to investigate and verify their right
view. In the process right knowledge will arise, followed by right liberation.
The eightfold Path is the teachings of the Prajnaparamita Sutra.
Prajnaparamita Sutra is believed to be the highest form of Buddhist
teaching. The way to the end of suffering is to choose middle path by

9|Page

balancing the luxury and hardship, utilizing the minimum requirements to

have the livelihood.
Right knowledge is seeing things as they really are by direct experience,
not as they appear to be, nor as the practitioner wants them to be, but as
they truly are. A result of Right Knowledge is the tenth factor - Right
liberation. These two factors are the end result of correctly practicing the
noble eightfold path, which arise during the practice of right concentration.
The first to arise is right knowledge: this is where deep insight into the
ultimate reality arises. The last to arise is right liberation: this is where selfawakening occurs and the practitioner has reached the pinnacle of their
practice.
Right Mindfulness focuses us on the truth about what is happening in the
body, mental feelings and thoughts etc. Right Concentration is a
development of this attention, enabling to develop the mind that brings the
strengths and freedoms including the clarity of mind and calmness to stay
on the path of Good Conduct. Mental ability to see things with clear
knowledge or the sense of one's personal or collective identity or
awareness, try to be aware of the "here and now" instead of "there and
then". Correct concentration: to keep a steady, calm and attentive state of
mind (universal emptiness) or the Natural Joy. To realize the true nature of
things the mind need to be steady and cal. The practice of developing
Right View is to distinguishing between right and wrong, good and bad that
leads to a complete understanding of the Four Noble Truths. Right View is
free from delusion and ignorance and moves very easily into deep wisdom,
clear sight and the ego disappear which leads to the stage of
enlightenment and the ego gets disappear.
Buddhism has always been concerned with feelings, emotions, sensations,
and mental processes. The emotional cause is desire and a strong feeling
of not liking something. The conscious mental activities are the main cause
of ignorance related to the things truly occurs, or three marks of existence:
that all things are unsatisfactory, impermanent, and without essential self.
The way leading to stop or make an end to the suffering is the noble
eightfold path, believed to be the highest form of Buddhist teaching. The
.

10 | P a g e

way to end the suffering is to choose middle path by balancing the luxury
and hardship, utilizing the minimum requirements to have the livelihood.
Middle Path, choosing and balancing the luxury and hardship is the
treatment for the problem of suffering in our lives. Noble Eightfold Path
can only work if a person chooses to apply it to their lives, and takes full
responsibility in following the steps. The Noble Eightfold Path is a very
systematic and methodical approach to solve the problem of suffering in
life, and achieving a state of wisdom, peace and Nirvana. The programmer
first develops character and personality and then develops ethical conduct
and restraint which promote concentration.
Concentration and mindfulness help make the mind free from ignorance
and blossom into wisdom (access higher knowledge). Wisdom brings a
clear under-standing of the truth about how things really are. This leads
craving and desire to end from the mind (detachment) that brings freedom
from suffering and the end of suffering brings Supreme Happiness. The
Noble Eightfold Path describes the teachings as a formula which is
described in simple steps and includes both physical and mental treatment
for getting a end of suffering. The goal of the Noble Eightfold Path is to
bring a true understanding of the Four Noble Truths and deliver their
ultimate Teaching - the end of suffering. The Path develops character and
personality by showing the way to live a virtuous life, develop wisdom and
finally to attain the highest qualities of a human being and develop the
Buddhahood. This is the ultimate goal of the Eightfold Path and all eight
ways of practice must be followed in order to attain it. The Path is
specifically aimed at developing behavior, mind and knowledge and the
eight steps are divided into those three ways of practice, which are Good
Conduct, Mental Development and Wisdom.
The eightfold Path is the teachings of the Prajnaparamita Sutra.
Prajnaparamita Sutra is believed to be the highest form of Buddhist
teaching. Prajnaparamita has been the subject of controversy since long
and scholars are not able to trace its origin. The Chinese traveler Faxian
described images of Prajnaparamita in India as early as 400 BC, but all
known existent images date from 800 or later. Buddhist scholars agree that
11 | P a g e

Prajnaparamita sutras represent the earliest layer of Mahayana sutra

literature. Diamond Sutra (300 stanzas) also known as Vajrachedika
Prajnaparamita Sutra is widely used and is also popularly known as
portable editions of Prajnaparamita.
The circulations of the Prajnaparamita Sutra involved in three phases:
a) Memorization of the basic text
b) Systematic updating
c) Interpretations that made the text live for succeeding generation.
Scholars distinguish the developments of the writing of the
Prajnaparamita manuscript into four different phases:
.

1) 100 B.C. to 100 A.D. Basic text elaboration: this period is

characterized by the formation and composition of the basic text. The
oldest text in this period is the Astashasrika Sutra or the Prajnaparamita
in Eight Thousand Verses.
2) 100 A D to 300 A D In this period the basic text are being expanded
including these three manuscripts were made:
a) Shatasahasrika (100,000 line)
b) Panchavimshasrika Sutra (25,000 lines)
c) Ashtadashashasrika Sutra (18,000 lines)
3) 300 A.D to 500 A.D This period is characterized by the restatement of
the basic ideas in short sutras having verified and summaries. The
Diamond Sutra (300 stanzas) also known as Vajrachedika Prajnaparamita Sutra and the Hridaya Prajnaparamita Sutra (Heart Sutra with
14 and 25 verses) belong to this period.
.

4) 500 AD to 1200 A.D. - This period is characterized by the influence of

the tantras, evidences of magical elements in the sutras and their usage.
Adhyardhashatika Prajnaparamita Sutra (150 verses). (Edward, Conze:
The Prajnaparamita Literature, The Reiyukai University, Tokyo 1978)
Hsuan-tsang, the Chinese scholar after completing his study (645 A.D.) in
India brought with him some of the manuscript and started translating
12 | P a g e

them into Chinese language. He also translated The Great Prajnaparamita

Text (worked between 659 and 663). It is a collection of the sixteen
sermons Dharma-deshana in four different places, a) Vulture Peak b) in
Anathapindadas Park at Sravasti c) in Paranirmita vasavartin the abode of
Gods and d) at the Snowy Heron Pond in the Bamboo Park near Rajgriha.
Most of the manuscripts are in Sanskrit and are being originated and
copied in Nepal. B.H. Hodgson collected Prajnaparamita from Nepal (1830
1840) written in Sanskrit was the first collection of its kind brought to
Europe. Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita having Eight Thousand Verse is
believed to be the oldest form of Prajnaparamita which is has been
translated into Chinese language in 100 B.C. (Edward, Conze: The
Composition of the Astashasrika Prajnaparamita, Bulletin of the School of
Oriental & African Studies:University of London Vol. 14- No.2,1952). The
way to the end of suffering is to choose middle path by balancing the
luxury and hardship, utilizing the minimum requirements to have the
livelihood.
Truth is found through the Middle Way by following Eightfold Noble Path
stated below: The Trisatika, Pancasatika, Saptasatika, Sardhadvisahasrika, Astasahasrika,
Astadasasahasrika, Pancavimsatisahasrika and Satasahasrika Prajnaparamita
Sutra
1) Trisatika Prajnaparamita Sutra 300 lines, the Diamond Sutra or
Vajracchedika Prajnaparamita Sutra
2) Pancasatika Prajnaparamita Sutra: 500 lines
3) Saptasatika Prajnaparamita Sutra: 700 line the Bodhisattva Manjushrees
Exposition of Prajnaparamita
4) Sardhadvisahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra: 2500 lines from the questions
of Suvikranta vikramin Bodhisattva
5) Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra: 8000 lines

13 | P a g e

6) Astadasasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra: 18,000 lines

7) Pancavimsatisahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra: 25,000 lines
8) Satasahasrika Prajnaparamita: 100,000 lines Maha Prajnaparamita Sutra

According to Joseph Walser, Pancavimsatisahasrika Prajn- paramita Sutra

(25,000 line) and Satasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra (100,000 lines) have
a connection with Dharmaguptaka sect, while Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra (8000 lines) does not have any sect.
(Williams, Paul. Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations 2008)
The Heart Sutra (Prajnaparamita Hridaya in 14 line & 25 line) and Diamond
Sutra (300 stanzas) are renowned throughout the world and have been
translated into many languages and often been commented upon by
scholars. Tantric versions of the Prajnaparamita literature were believed to
have been in practiced as early as 500 AD. Images of Prajnaparamita deity
are found throughout Southeast Asia, Nepal and Tibet.
The oldest image of Prajnaparamita found until to-day is the stone
sculpture from Sing sari, East Java kept in the Pusat Museum that belong
to thirteenth Century (13th Century). (Credit: Courtesy of the Rijksmuseum
voor Volkenkunde, Leiden, Netherland)
She is usually represented in yellow or white colour, with one head and
two arms (sometimes more), the hands in the teaching gesture
(dharmachakra - mudra) holding a Lotus and a book. The image found in
Nepal has four hand holding rosary, sword (to clean ignorance),
thunderbolt (symbolizing the emptiness- vajra), or bowl (renunciation of
material goods being a prerequisite to obtain wisdom). In Vajrayana
(Tantric) Buddhism, she is described as the female consort of Adi-Buddha
(first Buddha).
Conclusion:
Prajnaparamita teachings are held by some Tibetan Buddhists to have
been conferred upon Nagarjuna by Nag raja, King of Nagas, who had been
guarding them at the bottom of the ocean. Tantric versions of the
Prajnaparamita literature were produced from the year 500 CE. Some of
14 | P a g e

the ancient manuscripts are in the collection of Museums around the world.
The following two collections are very important and authentic, The Heart
Sutra (smallest of its kind having only 14 Stanza in Sanskrit) is in New York
Museum and the Perfection of wisdom in Tibetan Script (having 8,000
stanzas / shloka) from Copenhagen Royal Library.
There are Prajnaparamita also written in other languages found in many
South Asian Countries, Japan, Korea, Hong Kong, China, Tibet, Myanmar,
Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Java, Sumatra, Bali, India, Bangladesh, and
Sri Lanka, but most of the Scholars do believe the one from Sri Lanka is
the oldest and is called the authentic collection as it is written in Pali script.
(Pali is the oldest script among other used in Buddhist Text). In addition to
these, there is also other Prajnaparamita sutras such as the Heart Sutra
(Prajnaparamita Hridaya), which exists in both 14-line and 25-line versions.
Regarding the shorter texts, Edward Conze in his book "The Short
Prajnaparamita Texts - 1973" writes, according to merit the Diamond Sutra
and the Heart Sutra are renowned throughout the world. Both have been
translated into many languages and have often been commented upon.
There are more Prajnaparamita manuscripts in other languages found in
many South Asian Countries Tibet, China, Japan, Korea, Hong Kong,
Cambodia, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Java, Sumatra, Bali, India, Sri
Lanka, and Bangladesh. Most of the Scholars are of the opium that the
oldest and authentic one is from Sri Lanka.
The oldest Prajnaparamita manuscript (written during the period of
Manipaldeva the king of Bengal 1020 AD) from the collection of Cambridge
University is written in Ranjana script, highlights the origin of Ranjana
Script from India. --- From the collection of Indian Art Museum, Berlin Dr.
Regmi, Dinesh Chandra, Purlekhana Paricaya VS 2048/ 1991 (Nepalese
Paleography - in Nepali - Page 102)
There are many Vihars in and around Kathmandu Valley where they do
have collections of Buddhist manuscripts written by different scholars and
are displayed during the holy month GUNLA - August / September.
There is Prajnaparamita manuscript also in the collection of National
Achieve as well in Asha Saphu Kuthi, (Asha Archives), Kaiser Library and
.

15 | P a g e

National Library in Nepal. Most of those collections are in small version/

volume but the one in Vikramshila Mahavihar, Thamel sounds to be more
authentic and has more Stanzas (shlokas) and is nicely written with real
golden ink (dated 344 NS / 1233 AD). Prajnaparamita from Patan, Rudra
Varna Mahavihar is dated 216 NS/ 1105 AD and from Hiranya Varna
Mahabihar is dated 336 NS / 1225 AD (Hem Raj Sakya and T.R. Vaidya,
1970 Medieval Nepal: Colophons and inscriptions, Kathmandu page 6)
Vikramshila Mahavihar (Simhakalpanagar, Thambahi)
Vikramshila Mahavihar, Thambhi, Simhakalpanagar is the ancient name of
Bhagwan Bahal, Thamel Kathmandu. Mahavihar signify it to be a higher
teaching institute same as a University, Thambahil signify it to be the
monastery of high significance and pride.
Simhakalpanagar denotes it as a separate city or town. Bahi is the old form
of Nepalese monastery usually located in a peaceful place far from the city
settlement and are made in a plinth little above the level of the ground and
are constructed in a very simple form. Originally Bahis were designed as a
place for training, perching, copying the religious text; as a teaching
institute; boarding for the students and shelter for the visiting monks. After
the introduction of Vajrayan cult a new kind of monastery known as bahal
were constructed (with some lavish decoration) in the city settlement to
accommodate the married monks living together with their family.(Korn,
Wolfgang, 1976 - The Traditional Architecture of Kathmandu Valley,
Bibliotheca Himalayan Series 2, Ratna Pustak Bhandar, Kathmandu).
The Saharsha Prajnaparamita a rare collection of four volumes of highest
Buddhist manuscript in this temple complex has a close relationship with
Manjushree. The legendary Caravan to Lhasa leaded by Simhala Sarthbaha
also does have main historical significance to its establishment. Some of
the travel records made by scholars from India, Tibet and China also did
mention about the glory of this temple during the 11th and 13th century;
still lots of real facts are missing. The oldest available document related to
this temple is of the visits of Pundit Atisa from India in the early 11th
century (1041 AD)
.

16 | P a g e

In this short article I am trying my best effort to high light some facts to
make understand a common reader about this ancient temple complex:
lots of investigation and research need to be conduct to identify its past
glory, as we are left with few documents.
Swayambhu Puran is one of the oldest manuscripts narrating the story of
the evolution of Kathmandu Valley. According to the legend Kathmandu
Valley was a lake surrounded by mountains. Kanakmuni Bodhisattva is
believed to have thrown a lotus seed in the lake. A big lotus with thousand
leaves blossomed in the center of lake that attracted visitors from around
the globe. Manjushree Bodhisattva is believed to have visited this place and
meditated in Phulchoki (Phullichho) and Jamachho (Jatamatroccho). He is
believed to have drained the valley by cutting the edge of the hill with the
divine sword. (Chovar being the only exit for all rivers in Kathmandu Valley
and the black soil found everywhere in Kathmandu Valley does testify it to
be a lake earlier). Manjushree is the Bodhisattva of Divine wisdom
representing the infinite and eternal wisdom of Buddha. Manjushree holds
a sword in his right hand and a book of perfection (Prajnaparamita) in the
left hand.
The first historical important evidence of Than Bahi is the visit of Pundit
Atisha Shrijana (982- 1054) and spent one year studying Buddhist
philosophy during 1041 - 42 AD. He was the head pundit (Principal) of
Nalanda University and was invited by Tibetan king to visit Tibet to teach
and revive Buddhism. On his way to Tibet he spent one year in Nepal
(1041 - 42), most of his time was spent in Than Bahi and is believed to
have studied the Buddhist philosophy and has written books in Sanskrit.
(But the name of Prajnaparamita is not mentioned by Atisha)
The Saharsha Prajnaparamita a rare collection of four volume of highest
Buddhist manuscript in this temple complex has a close relationship with
Manjushree. The legendary Caravan to Lhasa leaded by Simhala Sarthbaha
also does have main historical significance to its establishment.
Some of the travel record made by scholars from India Tibet and China
also did mention about the glory of this temple during 11th and 13th
century, still lots of real facts are missing.
.

17 | P a g e

Darmashri Mitra, a renowned scholar from Vikramshila Vihar, Nalanda,

India is believed to visit Nepal for advance study in Buddhism and Sanskrit
in the early 13th Century. He did study in Thambahi, which clearly
indicates the high importance of Thambahi and the similarity of the name
Vikramshila indicates the name might have been given by him. Traditional
Architecture of Kathmandu Valley: by Wolfgang Korn, Ratna Pustak
Bhandar, 1976 (Text by Purnaharsha Vajracharya).
Recent Archeological excavation in Nalanda got a new light about the
existence of Vikramshila Vihar as one of the old teaching institution for
higher study in Buddhism in the early first century BC.
A historical evidence of the restoration of the temple in 408NS/1287AD by
Hari Singh during the resign of king Parthvendra Mall is being mentioned in
the Toran, the semicircular wood archive kept in the main entrance of the
temple. (It did have nice carvings of the image of Prajnaparamita which
was stolen some 40 years ago; a new Toran is kept now as a
replacement). The brick paving and the restoration of the temple complex
in Thambahi was done by Hari Simha during the reign of king Parthivendra
Malla is also mentioned in one of the stone inscription kept in National
Archive (The stone inscription no.173), Rajvamsi, Sanker Man 2027 VS in
Kantipur Silalekh Suchi published by HMG National Archive page 125.
Almost all Vihars in and around Kathmandu valley are being managed by
the community of priest family either by Bajracharya or Sakya (Gristha
Bhishu) family but this Vihar is exceptional where Pradhan family do
control the management to run the day to day activities as well as various
rituals during festivals.
Simhala Sarthabaha is believed to have established Bhagwan Bahal and the
entire daily rituals and activities during the festival are being controlled by
the Pradhan family from Thamel, who believe themselves as the
descendants of Simhala Sarthabaha.
We see Gaju on the roof tops of the religious buildings and temples; and
chaitya in the Buddhist temple. Both the Hindu as well as Buddhist temple
has Gaju (the roof top) a kalash (water Pot) design but the main shrine of
Thambahi has a chaitya and a metallic mirror on the roof. A banner of
.

18 | P a g e

white cloth along with a metallic belt hangs down from the metallic mirror
(Lucke, John K. Karunamaya 1986 p 474)
Saharsha Prajnaparamita
The four volume of Saharsha Prajnaparamita manuscript in the collection of
Thambahi is dated Nepal Sambat 344 Margasira Pratipada (1223 AD) is
believed to have written by Jinashri Jnana and started by Manjushree.
Jinashri is supposed to get inspired by Manjushree and found an auspicious
moment to start writing the manuscript, but felt asleep; Manjushree is
believed to have started writing the first three pages with his finger.
(The first three pages do have big script different than the remaining page).
When he woke up, found the auspicious moment already passed and was
laminating; Manjushree came forward and instructed him to start writing
without any disturbances as he has already started writing from the
auspicious moment. This is a legend but we have no evidence regarding
how long it did took to write all the four volume. The date NS 344 (1223
AD) might be the date it was completed or the date mentioned by
someone else? King Pratap Mall and Queen Lalmati after visiting this
temple wrote three stanzas appreciating the holy manuscript
Prajnaparamita. (NS 780 /1658AD)
Pandit Hemraj Sakya in his Nepal Sanskritya Mulukha 1969 (Main entrance
of the culture of Nepal) did mentioned this manuscript as Laksavati
Prajnaparamita; this clearly indicate to have 100,000 stanza. It is believed
that there were in total five volumes of Manuscripts. Tibetans did invade
the temple and looted one volume which was recovered by the army and
was deposited in Hanumandhoka Palace during King Pratap Malls period.
Some people used to speak to have seen a manuscript having more
similarity in script, being used during rituals in Sweat Bhairav temple in
Hanumandhoka There are 54,864 total lines in the four Volumes, (27 lines
in one page - nine lines in three rows) four volume containing 2032 page
(517 pages in Vol.1, 506 in Vol. II, 512 in Vol. III and 497 in Vol. IV). We
have no idea regarding the total number of pages in the missing volume
kept in Hanumandhoka.
19 | P a g e

If we guess 500 pages in the missing volume it will add 13,500 lines
making total 68,364 lines. It is very interesting facts about numerology in
both Hindu and Buddhist mythology that number nine plays a vital role,
this is clearly understood in the layout of the page with three row
containing nine lines totaling twenty seven lines, adding two and seven
makes nine so each and every volume also do have the same count ending
with nine. This does not happen if we have eight lines with three rows
even though nine lines with four rows do fulfill these criteria but the size do
not look nice. The size of the page is rectangular nine inches by eighteen
inches written in real golden ink, which looks like a print rather than a hand
written manuscript as the character looks uniform and looking at the nice
and bright prints, it is hard to believe it being written long ago.
During GUNLAA, the Buddhist holy months (ninth months of Lunar
Calendar) the four volumes are given to the Bajracharya of four renowned
Vihars of Kathmandu to recite from top to bottom and are paid for doing
so. During the last day of the display of the manuscript the National
(Royal) Kumari from Hanumandhoka is being carried on a chariot to
Thambhil for viewing the manuscript and the head Priest from
Hanumandhoka used to recite few lines from the first page and the last
page in the presence of Kumari marking the end of reciting the holy
manuscript Prajnaparamita. This used to be the only time when the
manuscript is able to be view by public. (Now a days one can easily see it
on paying fee that is used for the temple expenses). Many devotees from
China, Tibet, India, Sikkim and Bhutan come visit Thambahi to pay to view
and pay respect to this holy manuscript as it is believed to have written by
the divine lord of learning Manjushree.
.

Manjushree: Legendary or Historical?

In the first chapter of Kalachakra Tantra, the main religious Text of
Mahayan Buddhism, it is mentioned that 600 years after Buddha a great
scholar Manjushree will be born to get a new renaissance of Buddhist
thoughts, this clearly indicates Manjushree to belong to the First century
AD, (Boudha Darshan by Baldev Upaddhaya, Sharada Mandir Kashi 2003
20 | P a g e

page 454 55. Same quote is also given in Maryada No, 13 pages 69-71).
The Buddhist text Saddharma Pundarika, is also written by a Buddhist
Monk named Manjushree during the first century (Legendary History of
Kathmandu by John Luck page 412) and Late Bhuvan Lal Pradhan also did
mention the legendary Manjushree belong to the first century in the article
Manjushree Legendary or historical published in Nepali (Gorkhapatra
2048/2/11).
The holy Satashasrika Pranjaparamita (100,000 verses 12 volumes in the
Tibetan language) has been translated in ninth century by Jianshree Mitra,
Subrenbodieg and Tibetan Monk Ye-Se-sde, (Bibliotheca Indica 19021913). This clearly indicates Jianshree to belong to the ninth century
signifying his teacher Manjushree also to belong to this period. Edward
Conze in his book The Prajnaparamita Literature (Manton The Hague
1960) did mention that Jianmitra did translate this text in Tibetan language
during the early 9th century. The date 344 NS (1223AD) mentioned at the
end of the manuscript from Bhagwan Bahal, being written by Jianshri
indicates another historical Manjushree to belong to the thirteen century
(Jianshri was the disciple of Manjushree).There is some confusion
regarding the legendary and three historical Manjushree (The legendary
Manjushree from Mahachin (China), a scholar and Monk from India (1st
Century), Teacher of Jianmitra (Jinashri 9th Century) and teacher of
Jinashri (from the Prajna-paramita manuscript written in the 13th Century).
The date 1223 AD/ 344 NS mentioned at the end of the Prajnaparamita
manuscript from Vikramshila Mahavihar testify another historical
Manjushree (a monk from Nalanda University, India) the teacher of Jinashri
to belong to the 13th century. Jinashri is believed to have inspired from his
teacher Manjushree and found an auspicious moment to start writing the
manuscript. He felt asleep by the time and Manjushree is believed to start
writing the first three pages with his finger. (The first three pages do have
big script different than the remaining page). When he woke up, found the
auspicious moment already passed and was laminating; Manjushree came
forward and instructed him to start writing without any disturbances as he
has already started writing from the auspicious moment. This is a legend
.

21 | P a g e

but we have no evidence regarding how long it did took to write all the
four volume. The date 1223 AD / 344 NS mentioned at the end of the
manuscript might be the date it was completed or the date mentioned by
someone else? King Pratap Mall and Queen Lalmati after visiting this
temple (NS 780/ 1658 AD) during the festival did wrote three stanzas
appreciating the holy manuscript Satashariska Prajnaparamita (Meaning
100,000 Stanza--Pundit Hem Raj Sakya, Nepal Sanskritya Mulukha 1969
(Main entrance of the culture of Nepal) We have no idea regarding the
total page in the missing volume kept in Hanumandhoka).
The Jataka Tales (Stories of the Buddha's Former Births)
Jataka (Buddhist Birth Stories - Jataka Tales), the story of the previous
birth of Buddha is the oldest, most complete, and most important collection
of folk-lore which contains a record of the everyday life, and everyday
thoughts of the people. (The Commentarial Introduction entitled Nidana
Katha - The Story of the linage, Translated from Pali text by Prof. V.
Fausboll).
The Jatakas so constituted were carried to Ceylon in the Pali language,
when Buddhism was first introduced into that island (a date that is not
quite certain, but may be taken provisionally as about 250 B.C.); and the
whole tales were translated into the Singhalese language. Mahinda, the
son of Asoka (in some text he is called on as the brother of Asoka), is
believed to have collected 550 Jataka stories in Pali which were composed
by the time of the council of Patna (held in about 250 BC), the five
hundred and fifty Jatakas being contained in the twenty-two Nipatas. A
Jataka Book is also found in the Anguttara Nikdya and in the Saddharma
Pundarika.
The memoirs of the famous Chinese traveler, Fah-hian who visited
Abhayagiri in Sri Lanka (412 AD) recorded 500 representations of
Bodhisattva in successive births.
The Jataka Atthavannand, is previously belonging to the third or fourth
century BC, and retold into its present form in Ceylon in the fifth century
AD in the Pali text has been edited by Prof. Fausboll of Copenhagen in
.

22 | P a g e

1877-96 which is translated into English language by Edward Cowell

(Cambridge, 1895-1907) is the oldest collection of the Jataka Tales.
The 547 Jatakas do not include the Mahagovinda Jataka, which is
mentioned in several early texts such as Nidana-katha and the
Jatakatthakatha. Similarly some stories are repeated with the same name
or with another, have been arranged. Thus, the number of Jataka stories
could also be more or a little less.
The Asvaraja story relates the adventures of a caravan of merchants
shipwrecked on an island of demons and rescued by a flying horse, the
avarja king of horses. The Simhala story continues this narrative to
include the chief merchant, Simhala, being followed home by demons, who
tries to get him back before seducing and eating the king. Simhala is
crowned king and invades the island.
The Pali Jatakas and the Sanskrit Divyavadana ("heavenly stories") along
with a sixteenth-century Sanskrit text Gunakdrandavyiha, devoted to
Avalokiteswora narrates the story of The Flying White Horse and help
made to rescue the five hundred merchants from the captivity of the
Raksasi.
In the Karandavyuha Sutra, the horse is presented as an incarnation of the
Bodhisattva Avalokiteswora. The flying white horse is called Balaha in
Jataka, the stories of Buddhas previous life. The story of the horse Balaha
was immortalized in stone at the Angkor monument of Neak Pean during
the 12th century CE. (Khmer Mythology by Vittorio Roveda, p. 65).
In the 16th chapter of Gunakarandavyaha Simhsarthabahu is mentioned as
one of the previous lives of Buddha and in one the Jataka Stories the name
of the leader of the group of merchant is mentioned as Simhala who was
the only member to get back to the other shore. (The Jataka: Stories of
the Buddha's Former Births -The Goblin City page 164/165, edited by E. B.
Cowell, vol. 1 - 3. First published in 1895-1907)
The Sanskrit version of the Simhala story in the Gunakdrandavyuh as found
in Y.Iwamoto, Bukkyo Setsuwa Kenkyu Josetsu (Kyoto: Hozokan, 1967,
pp.247-94. /A.K.Ramanujan, "Who Needs Folklore? The Relevance of Oral

23 | P a g e

Traditions to South Asian Studies, South Asia Occasional Papers

(University of Hawaii Vol.1, 1990)
Hiuen Tsiang learned that Sri Lanka was known by several different names
- Ratnadipa "because of the precious gems found there", Silangiri and the
Sorrow less Kingdom, which may be related to Ravanas Asoka Garden as
mentioned in the Ramayana. Another name, Simhala, was derived from the
name of the legendary founder and first king of the island. (Buddhism in
Tibet by Emil Schlagintweit, Leipzig, London, 1863)
In all Jatakas from India, Sri Lanka, Tibet, China, Japan, Vietnam,
Indonesia, the story of the rescue of five hundred merchants from the
captive of Rakshasi by White Flying Horse, as the Devine Lord
Avalokiteswara, is mentioned and the story ends with the only member,
the leader able to get back home safely leaving behind all other members
under the captive of the Rakshasi but there is nothing mentioned about the
Leader of the Legendary Caravan. The story of the white flying horse is
illustrated on the bas-reliefs of the temple of Borobudur in Java (Leemans,
Borobudur, page 389, Leide, 1874) and on one side of a pillar in a Buddhist
railing at Mathura, is a flying horse with people clinging to it (Anderson,
Catalogue of the Indian Museum, Journal of the Pali Society 1888) from
The Goblin City (Valahassa Jataka by Francis & Thomas page 189).
The story of the horse Balaha was immortalized in stone at the Angkor
monument of Neak Pean (an artificial island with a Buddhist temple on a
circular island in Cambodia) during the 12th century CE. (See Khmer
Mythology by Vittorio Roveda, p. 65)
The mural paintings in Cave no. 17 of Ajanta Cave mention the story of
Bhalaha horse as a form of Avalokiteswora helping the group of merchants
from the Rakshisis.
One painting from Ajanta cave shows the pastimes of Prince Simhalas
journey to Sri Lanka. He is shipwrecked along with his men on an island on
which ogresses appear as beautiful women, but who eat their victims. The
prince escapes on a flying horse, then later returns to the island to conquer
it. (Behl, Benoy K.: The Ajanta Caves)

24 | P a g e

In the travel account of the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang, who visited India
in the seventh century A. D. and stayed here for fifteen years (629-645
AD), did not mention about Ajanta cave. In 1819 British officers of the
Madras Army made a discovery of this magnificent site. They named it
Ajanta after the name of the nearest village. After a gap of twenty-five
years, James Fergusson presented a paper at the Royal Asiatic Society of
Great Britain and Ireland in 1843. This is the first scholarly study of the site
which drew the global attention. (Ajanta: Monumental Legacy by A.P.
Jamkhedkar).
Ajanta Cave No. 17 has the largest number of paintings and murals than
any of the other caves. It also contains more murals than any of the
others. One painting shows the pastimes of Prince Simhalas journey to Sri
Lanka. The mural paintings in Cave no. 17 of Ajanta Cave mention the
story of Bhalaha horse as a form of Avalokiteswora helping the group of
merchants from the Rakshisis. He is shipwrecked along with his men on an
island on which ogresses appear as beautiful women, but who eat their
victims. The prince escapes on a flying horse, then later returns to the
island to conquer it. (The Cave Temples of India: by James Burgess and
James Fergusson, 1895)
.

1) Valahassa Jataka in Japanese Literature.

The Valahassa Jataka, as it is known in Pali, was transmitted across Asia
from India to Japan. A Japanese scroll painting belonging to the 13th
century illustrating the Valahassa Jataka is in the collection of The
Metropolitan Museum of Art, the tale is known as Kannon-kyo (Kannon
Sutra) in Japanese literature. In the tale the name of the island is
mentioned as Ceylon city of Cannibalistic demons. The name of the country
of the five hundred merchant and the name of the leader are not
mentioned. In this tale the five hundred merchant are called on as the
disciples of Sakyamuni and the white flying horse as Bodhisattva. (The
Flying White Horse: Transmission of the Valhassa Jataka Imagery from
India to Japan by Julia Meech-Pekarik, Article Published in Artibus Asiae
Publishers Volume 49 n. 1-2 - 1981, page 111- 128)
25 | P a g e

2) The Valahassa Jataka --- (Indonesian version)

Once upon a time, there was on the island of Lanka a goblin town called
Sirisavatthu that was the home of she-goblins. We find the story of a group
of five hundred shipwrecked traders being rescued by five hundred shegoblins disguised as pretty nice looking young ladies. The chief of the
traders got noticed the ladies as man eater goblins so he did request all
member to flee from the city (Ceylon). Only two hundred fifty members
followed the chief and they were being helped by the white flying horse to
cross the ocean. This is how the Jataka story ends with the rescue help
made to the group of merchants by the flying white horse Balaha as one of
the Buddhas previous life. The same story is repeated by E J Thomas in his
book Jataka Tales (No. 196, The Goblin City page 164-166 published by
Cambridge University Press in 1916 and in The Illustrated Jataka & Other
Stories of the Buddha, 196 Valahassa Jataka by C.B. Varma)
3) The Valahassa Jataka - Tibetan version.
In the history of Tibet called Rgyal-rabs-gsal-vai-me-lon (The mirror
illustrating the lineage of the kings) Valahassa Jataka is mentioned in the
sixth chapter. This was composed in the early 17th century with the
narrative description of the animistic life in Tibet from an ape and a
rakshasi and the description of the linage of the ruling king ending
Sronbtsan sgam-po and the further history of the country to the time of
the writer. (A Jataka Tale from the Tibetan: by H. Wenzel, pp.503-511,
published in 1888). The name of the island is mentioned as Singhala and
the group of five hundred merchants from India being rescued from the
Rakshasis by Lord Avalokiteswora in the form of flying horse Balaha.
3) Jataka Tale Translated from the Pali Literature (Dukanipata)
In the Valahassa Jataka (No.196) the island Tambannidipa and Sirisavatthu
is mentioned as a Yakkha city peopled by Yakkhins who used to eat
human flesh. Avalokiteswora, the divine lord is believed to get rescue the
group of five hundred merchant in the form of a white flying horse. (The
Jataka: Vol. II: Book II, translated from Pali. by W.H.D. Rouse, 1895, No.
196 Valahassa Jataka Page 90-92). Same story is mentioned in Jataka: The
26 | P a g e

Illustrated Jataka & Other Stories of the Buddha by C.B. Varma and A
Jataka-Tale from the Tibetan by H. Wenzel (The Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland pp. 503511)
5) Goblin City (Jataka Story: the Flying White Horse)
In the Jataka: Stories of the Buddha's Former Births, Ceylon is mentioned
as the Goblin City and the leader of the group of merchant is mentioned as
Simhala who was the only member able to get back to the other shore
(The Jataka: Stories of the Buddha's Former Births edited by E. B. Cowell,
volumes 1 - 3. First published in 1895-1907 under the title - The Goblin
City page 164/166)
6) Jataka Tale from The Tibet by H. Wenzel (The Goblin City, Journal of
the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland page 503-511)
7) Jataka Story from Ajanta Cave
Cave 17 has the largest number of paintings in its premises. Among the
finest are a vast panel depicting Simhalas shipwreck and encounter with a
man-eating ogress and also of a lady admiring herself as she gazes intently
into a mirror. (The Cave Temples of India by James Fergusson and James
Burgess 1895 and Ajanta and Ellora: Cave Temples of Ancient India
Pushpesh Pant)
.

8) The adventure of the Merchant Simhala is also mentioned by Professor

Siegfried Lienhard with a description of a long scroll Painting 11.44 meter
long and 0.55 meter wide with 80 frames each with the legend / story of
Simshartha Bahu (Text in Nepali Script & the language Newari) from the
collection of Museum of Indian Art, Berlin. Professor Siegfried Lienhard also
did mention about this Scroll painting in his paper A Nepalese painted
Scroll Illustrating the Simhalavadan (Nepalica 4 Sankt 49-53 Editors Prof.
N.Gulschow & A. Micheals - Sankt. Augustine VGH Wissenschaflaverlage
Page 51-53). Published in the Heritage of Kathmandu Valley, proceedings
of an an Intl. Conference in Lubec June 1985)
9) Indonesian Valahassa Jataka

27 | P a g e

Once upon a time, in the island of Ceylon (Tambapaidipa), there is a

town called Sirisavatthu inhabited by the yakhsa women. Five hundred
merchants ship wrecked near the town of yaksha woman. All five hundred
merchants were rescued by five hundred yakhsa and they were living as
husband and wife. Later in the evening, when their husband was asleep,
the yakhsa went to the house of torture, killing several men there and prey
on them. When the head Yakhsa came back the leader merchant noticed
her body cold so he thought her to be a yakhsa. Next morning he spoke to
his friends flee because they were being under the captive of the yakhsa.
Two hundred merchant followed their leader and were helped by white
flying horse to cross the ocean.
The story ends with the story of Bodhisattva born into the world as a white
horse flying from Himalayas to Ceylon and two hundred and fifty merchant
as the disciple of the Buddha.
.

10) Simhalasarthabahu Avadana Todd T. Lewis in his Ph.D. Dissertation,

Newar-Tibetan Trade and the Domestication of "Simhala sarthabahu
Avadana" mention about Simhala Sarthabahu as the leader of the five
hundred merchants. (Page 135-160)
In Simhala Avadana it is mentioned, during the period of king Simhakesari
from Simhakalpa a son named Simhala was born to a wealthy merchant
Simhaka. Simhala was selected as the leader of the group of five hundred
merchants who were on a sea-voyage. The abode of rakshasis is
mentioned as Tamradvipa and Simhala was able to escape from the island
on a magic white horse living behind all other members under the captive
of the Rakshasis. In Popular Buddhist Texts from Nepal: Narratives and
Rituals in a Newar Merchant Community (Columbia University: Ph.D.
Dissertation, 1984), Todd T. Lewis mentions the name of the leader of the
group of the merchant leading to Lhasa as Simhalasarthabahu, son of the
Merchant Simhaka from the town of Simhakalpa in Jambudvipa.
Professor Todd Lewis in his article published in the Journal of Religion
mention about a stupa in Lhasa known as Simsharthabahu Chorten and a
shrine in Jokhang dedicated to his wife' that Newar traders honor as the
28 | P a g e

form of Jatika Ajima (Newar-Tibetan Trade and the Domestication of

Simhala Sarthabaha Avadan, source History of Religions, Vol.33 No. 2,
page 150, published by the University of Chicago Press 1993)
.

11) Dr. Naomi Appleton:

a) Seduced by Sansara saved by a flying horse: A study of the Asvaraja
and Simhala Stories (M.Phil. Thesis Cardiff University 2004)
b) The story of the Horse king and the Merchant Simhala in Buddhist text
- Buddhist studies Review 23/2 - 2006 page 187-201
c) Jataka Stories in Theravada Buddhism
(D. Phil. Thesis Oxford University 2008)
Simhala Sarthabaha
Sarthabaha is used to identify the leader of the merchants, in some of the
early texts as well as in the poem from Kalidasa in the early 11th century.
This is how Simhala the leader of the Caravan got a new name Simhala
Sarthabaha (also called upon as Simhsartha bahu). The main image of
Bhagwan Bahal known as Garujuju or Garud Bhagwan, is believed to be
the image of Simhsarthabahu. After all royal family being killed, he became
the leader or say chief of the Army so got a new name Garuda and once he
became the king again called Garudjuju. (Garuda meaning the chief of the
Army who is able to handle the war and Juju the king see Pradhan, Bhuvan
Lal, Kathmandu Upatyakaka kehi sanskritic chhirka mirka 2047,- some
notes on the culture identity of Kathmandu valley in Nepali p. 72)
In Newar Buddhist traditions Ajima is known as child eating carnivorous
Rakhishi being converted to Buddhism by Lord Buddha and is given the
duty to take care of the children. Most of the prominent Newar viharas
have temples dedicated to her (Ajima). The small shrine outside the
Bikramshila Mahavihar, Thambahi is dedicated to the raksasi wife of
Simhala Sarthabaha known as Jatika Ajima.
But the story popular among Pradhan, a Newar Buddhist family from
Thambahi is different than the Jataka Tales. The Poubha (Wilampau,
Thangka painting, and Scroll painting) being displayed in the main court of
29 | P a g e

Thamel, during the holy months of Gunlaa narrates the legendary story of
the Voyage to Lhasa, being led by Simhala Sarthabaha. The hero of the
story is regarded as a bodhisattva and a large gilded image of him is
enshrined in one of the Kathmandu's oldest Buddhist temples in Thambahi,
dating back to the 11th century. (Puma Harsha Bajracarya, Than Bahil: An
Ancient Centre for Sanskrit Study, Indologica Taurinensia 7, 1979: 62-64).
The Legendary story of the Lhasa Caravan
A copy of ancient wall hanging (Poubha, Wilampau, Thangka painting,
Scroll painting) narrating the story of the legendary caravan to Lhasa is
being displayed in the main courtyard of Bhagwan Bahal during the festival
of the holy month Gunla the ninth months according to the Nepali Lunar
Calendar.
According to the legend (a non-historical or unverified story), a group of
five hundred young businessmen left for a caravan to Lhasa. The group did
selected Simhala, a merchant with rich knowledge, as their leader, this is
how he got a new name Simhala Sarthabaha, as Sarthabaha is called for
the leader of the group of merchant. Walking through dense forest they
came across river Brahmaputra. While crossing river the river they
encountered an accident and were being rescued by five hundred young
and exceptionally beautiful ladies. All members of the caravan were busy
doing business and were enjoying with the young ladies as their wife, they
did not thought of returning back home. Simhala sarthabaha used to
worship the family God Avalokiteshvara (Karunamaya) daily. One day
Simhala Sarthabaha was given the sight of Lord Avalokiteshwora
(Karunamaya) while in meditation and worship. In the dream the Devin
Lord Avalokiteshwora told him that they are being under captive of the
devils (The man eater) and told him to leave the city as soon as possible as
it was a bewitched Island. He was instructed to go to the north side of the
city to check a big compound surrounded by tall walls like a well, where
they used to throw the skeletons.

30 | P a g e

Avalokiteshwora also did promise to help them cross the river. He went
there and was able to climb a tree, and saw lots of human skeletons
behind the tall walls, where they were not forbidden to visit. He got
convinced himself about the dream after visiting the northern side of the
city. He made the plan to get an escape from the evil eyes of the damsels
whom they mistakenly thought of their beloved wives. He was able to get
convinced his friends about the instruction of the divine Lord and made a
plan to live the bewitched land as soon as possible. They left their home in
the middle of the night when their wives were fast asleep and came close
to the Brahmaputra River. Simhala Sarthabaha did worship the divine Lord
and a flying horse appeared. The horse instructed all them to get a ride
and warned them not to look behind while crossing the river and enchant
the Triratna Mantra. When the she devils wok up, they could not find the
young merchants sleeping next to them. They were flying across the river
and started laminating and requesting them to return back home. All
members except Simhala Sarthabaha looked behind and were under the
captive of the she devils and were taken back to the other side of the river.
Simhala Sarthabaha was the only person who did not look behind, and did
not forget to enchant the Mantra of Triratna, so was able to get back home
leaving behind all his friends under the captive of the wretched women
(she devil). The chief devil, wife of Simhala Sarthabaha followed him and
disguised as a young and exceptionally beautiful lady came to the court
with a baby on her lap claiming herself to be the wife of Simhala
Sarthabaha. Simhala Sarthabaha did try to convince the king that she is a
man eater and denied to accept them as his wife and son.
The king then kept her in the palace as he was attracted with the
exceptional beauty of the lady. In the middle of the night she called all her
companions and started killing the members of the Royal family and the
staff. Next day when the palace door did not opened Simhala Sarthabaha
entered the palace climbing through a ladder. He was no more able to find
anybody but the human skeleton scattered all over the palace court yard.
He could not found any of the Royal family members in the palace as all
31 | P a g e

were being killed and eaten by the she devils. He found the human
skeletons scattered around the palace and saw the she devils sleeping
around the courtyard. With the Devin sword he is believed to have killed all
the Dankinis except his wife who did beg pardon for her life.
After being pardoned from her life she is being ordered to make a solemn
vow to protect the entire community and in return she also made a
proposal to protect the community least there be no opening in the roof
top of the buildings. This is why even today the Pradhans from this locality
do not have open roof-tops in their houses. She was then asked which
portion of the rice she wants to have- the first, middle or the last. She
spoke to have the first one thinking herself as senior so this is how she got
the sticky water (Jati). This is how even today the sticky water (Jati) is
being poured to the image of Jatika Ajima, before reaching the rice bowl to
Garud Bhagwan. She has made a vow to protect the entire community;
she also made a proposal least there be no openings in the rooftops of the
buildings. This is why even today the Pradhans from the locality do not
have open rooftops in their houses. Simhala Sarthabaha was nominated as
the leader of the community as all members of the Royal family were killed
by the she devil. This is how he got a new name Garud literally meaning
army chief and later on was able to become the king and called Garudjuju.
(Pradhan, Bhuban Lal, 2047, Kathmandu Upatyeka ka Chirka Mirka, Page 82)

Simhala Sarthabaha donated land and is believed to have established

Thambahi in his home town; with the wealth he earned from Lhasa (the
traders usually bring Gold from Tibet). Later on being the chief of the army
was able to become the king and got coroneted to the thrown so called
Garud juju. Later on with his spiritual power and intellectual knowledge, he
gained popularity as a form of Divine God Dipankara Garud Bhagwan. His
wife also is honored as a divine god Ajima, the protector Goddess (Jatika
Ajima). Even these days the sticky water (Jati) is being poured to the
image of Ajima (Jatika Ajima), before reaching the rice bowl to Garud
Bhagwan.

32 | P a g e

The main image of Bhagwan Bahal which is known as Garujuju or Garud

Bhagwan, is believed to be the image of Simhala Sarthabaha. Even today
Pradhans from Thambahi do not visit Lhasa as they believe themselves the
descendant of Simhala Sarthabaha because they are scared of being
attracted by the she devils as revenge.
Baidyo Boayagu
The ninth months of Lunar calendar (it starts from the dark moon night of
Festival of light) so called GUNLAA is being celebrated as the holy month
by the Newar Buddhist community in Kathmandu Valley. During this
festival antiques, Images of Dipankar, images of different God and
Goddess, Paubha paintings (Thanka painting, scroll painting, Wilampau),
traditional clothings are displayed in the courtyard of Buddhist shrines Baha and Bahi and is called Baidyah Boayagu.
A copy of ancient wall hanging being displayed in the main court of
Thamel, during the holy months of Gunlaa narrates the legendary story of
the Voyage to Lhasa, being leaded by Simhala Sarthabaha. Professor
Siegfried Lienhard did published an article introducing a painting 11.44
meter long and 0.55 meter wide with 80 frames each with legend story
text in Nepali script and the language Newari illustrating the Simhala
avadan from the collection of The Museum of Indisan Art, Berlin (Heritage
of the Kathmandu Valley: Preceding of an Intl Conference in Lubek, June
1985 edited by Niels Gutschow and Ayiel Michaels. Nepalica 4 Sankt, 1987
page 49-53).
Professor Todd Lewis also published a paper on the localization of
Simhalasarthabahu Avadana - Chicago Journal, History of Religion volume
33 no.2, November 1993, page 135-160 (Tib-Trade and Domestication of
Simhalsarth Avadan)
Garuda Bhagwan (Garudjuju)
Sartha Baha is used to identify the leader of the merchants, in some of the
early texts as well as in the poem from Kalidasa in the early 11th century.
33 | P a g e

The Poubha (scroll painting) being displayed in the main court of Thamel,
during the holy months of Gunlaa narrates the legendary story of the
Voyage to Lhasa, being led by Simhala Sarthabaha.
This is how Simhala the leader of the Caravan got a new name Simhala
Sarthabaha later called upon as Simhala Sarthabaha. The main image of
the Bhagwan Bahal is known as Garujuju or Garud Bhagwan, is believed to
be the image of Simhala Sarthabaha. After all royal family was killed he
became the leader or say chief of the Army so got a new name Garuda and
once he became the king again called Garudjuju. (Pradhan, Bhuvan Lal,
2047, Kathmandu Upatyakaka kehi sanskritic chhirka mirka -some notes on
the culture identity of Kathmandu valley in Nepali p. 72). Simhala
Sarthabaha is believed to have established Bhagwan Bahal and the entire
daily rituals and activities during the festival are being controlled by the
Pradhan family from Thamel, who believe themselves as the descendants
of Simhala Sarthabaha.
Simhala Sarthabaha is mentioned as one of the previous life of Buddha in
the 16th chapter of Gunakarandavyaha. In one of the chronological history
(Bansabali) from Kaiser Library the story of Lhasa caravan was mentioned
during the reign of King Gunakamadeva (NS 107-110/ 987-990 AD) and in
some writings he is mentioned as to belong to the period of Singhketu
descendent of Gunakamadeva.
Atisha the renowned scholar from Vikramshila Vihar did spent one year
(1041/42 AD) in Nepal before departing to Tibet, most of his time was
spent in Thambahi but he did not mentioned about Garud Bhagwan and
Prajnaparamita. The monastery in Itubahal is believed to have established
by Bhashkardeva (NS 165-167 / 1045-1047 AD) and later on got renovated
by Kesh Chandra brother in law of Simhsarthabahu (Bhaskardeva
sanskarita Kesh Chandra krita parabrata Mahavihar from the stone
inscription of Itumbahal).
We can thus conclude that Simhala Sarthabaha belong to a period after
Bhashkardeva (NS 165-167 / 1045-1047 AD) or after Kalidasa (early 11th
century)
34 | P a g e

Simhala Sarthabaha is believed to have established Bhagwan Bahal and the

entire daily rituals and activities during the festival are being controlled by
the Pradhan family from Thambahi, who believe themselves as the
descendants of Simhala Sarthabaha. They do not visit Lhasa as they were
scared of getting revenge by the she-devil from Lhasa.
Simhala Sarthabaha is believed to be the first merchant to establish trade
in Tibet. Both Simhala Sarthabaha is given equal honor as the form of
Devin God by the Tibetan people calling him the Jewel Trader Bhagwan
(Chhong Nurbu Saange or Tsongpon Norbu Sangpo - Chhong meaning
Trader; Tsongpon meaning Leader of Traders; Nurbu meaning Jewel and
Saange or Sangpo meaning Bhagwan). There is a chorten (Temple) in
Zhugong near Lhasa called Simhsarthabahu Chorten and a shrine of his
wife in Jokhang that contain the image of his wife. (Newar Tibetain Trade
and the Domestication page 152)
Simhala Avadana (The Story of the Horse-King, and the Merchant
Simhala in Buddhist Texts) by Naomi Appleton
Once upon a time a wealthy merchant named Simhaka used to live in the
capital city of Simhakalpa ruled by king Simhakesari. When his wife gave
birth to a beautiful son, Simhaka named him Simhala. After finishing his
education, he asked his father for permission to go away on a sea-voyage.
Simhaka was afraid of losing his beloved son and was not willing to send
him for the voyage. Simhala left Simhakalpa in the company of five
hundred merchants. They all took with them abundant merchandise. After
visiting many places the merchants sold all their goods and made huge
profits. On their way back they reached a place called Tamradvipa. This
place was the abode of rakshasis. On seeing the merchants, all the
rakshasis took beautiful female forms and entertained the merchants. Each
rakshasi took one of his friends home, fed him, made love to him and they
lived as husband and wife. When all his friends were thus drugged to
sleep, the rakshasis devoured them. The rakshasi entrusted with the task

35 | P a g e

of devouring Simhala fled when he took out his sword. Simhala then
escaped from the island on a magic white horse.
From Tamradvipa, Simhala came to Jambudvipa. The rakshasi in the form
of a very beautiful young lady followed him. She met a merchant from
Madhya Desa. She promptly fell at his feet and said I am the daughter of
the king of Tamradvipa and was married to Simhala. While crossing the
ocean the ship encountered an accident. He left me as he thought me to
be inauspicious. The merchant was impressed by her story and promised to
help her. He blamed Simhala for not accepting the innocent girl. Simhala
then told him that she was a rakshasi. From Jambudvipa Simhala returned
to Simhakalpa. The rakshasi followed him there also. She came to the
house of Simhala with a very handsome child, greatly resembling Simhala.
She told Simhala's father the same old story. When Simhala came back
home, his parents requested him to forgive his wife. Simhala then revealed
the true nature of the innocent young girl. After being denied by Simhala,
the rakshasi went to the palace claiming her as the wife of Simhala and the
child as his son. The king of Simhakalpa, Simhakesari ordered Simhala to
accept her as his wife. Simhala told the king who she was and requested
him to expel her. But the king was attracted by her beauty and kept her in
the palace.
During diner the rakshasi mixed sleeping doses everyone including the king
felt asleep. She then invited her rakshasi friends to come and join in the
feast. She told them that they should stop claim over Simhala instead of
giving them one; she was giving them so may. The rakshasis entered the
palace and started killing the king and his family. In the morning people
saw vultures rooming around the place. Simhala entered the palace
climbing through a ladder. Then he searched the entire palace but could
not find any of the royal family members. The ministers and the people
decided to offer the crown to Simhala. The crown was then offered to
Simhala who accepted it on the condition that the people would obey him
without question. On assuming the throne, he raised a powerful army and
invaded Tamradvipa. When king Simhala with his army marched upon
.

36 | P a g e

Tamradvipa, the rakshasis surrendered to him and agreed to leave the

island. The island was then colonized by Simhala and was called
Simhaladvipa after him.
Conclusion
The Jataka Tale definitely speak of the story of the Divine Lord
Avalokiteshwora as a white flying horse and the help rescue of the five
hundred merchants but the name of the Globin City populated by the man
eating ogresses is still not clear Is it Lhasa or Ceylon (Sri Lanka)?
Gunakarandavyuha and Simhala Sarthabaha Avadan and the legendary
story narrated in the scroll painting from Thambahi along with the image of
Garuda Bhagwan has a strong support to identify the name of the Globin
City to be Lhasa not Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Simhala Sarthabaha as the
leader of the legendary Lhasa voyage.
Professor Todd Lewis of the college of Holy Cross in Massachusetts, USA
also published a paper on the localization of Simhala Sarthabaha Avadana,
the legendary story of Lhasa Caravan being leaded by Simhala Sarthabaha.
(Tibet Trade and Domestication of Simhalasarth Avadan Chicago Journal,
History of Religion, volume 33 no. 2, 1993, page 135-160)
Atisa the renowned scholar from Vikramshila Vihar did spent one year
(1041/42 AD) in Nepal before departing to Tibet, most of his time was
spent in Thambahi but he did not mentioned about Garud Bhagwan nor the
Holy Sahashra Prajnaparamita manuscript from Bikramshila Mahabihar,
Thambahi.
The monastery in Itubahal is believed to have established by Bhashkardeva
(NS 165-167 / 1045-1047 AD) and later on got renovated by Kesh Chandra
brother in law of Simhala Sarthabaha. (Bhaskardeva sanskarita Kesh
Chandra krita parabrata Mahavihar from the stone inscription of Itumbahal)
We can thus conclude that Simhala Sarthabaha belong to late 11th Century
a period after Kalidasa (early 11th century) or Atisa (1041 AD) and
Bhashkardeva. (1047 AD)
37 | P a g e

A garland of Gold to you the listener!

A garland of flowers to you the story teller!
Now may these stories go to heaven?
And when it is time to retell them Comeback immediately again!
This is the traditional way of closing the story telling in Nepal.

Reference books (For further studies)

Anderson, Mary M. 1971. The Festival of Nepal, Delhi
Bajracharya, Badriratna, 1986 Buddhism in Nepal, Kathmandu
Bhikhu Sudarshan Simshartha Bahu wa Kabir Kumar ya bakhan
Chattopadhyaya, Alka 1967. Atisha and Tibet, India
Conze, Edward, 1970. Buddhist Thoughts in India
Preliminary Note on Prajnaparamita Manuscript
Journal of Royal Asiatic Society
Dass, Sarat Chandra, 1893 Indian Pundits in the land of Snow
Asiatic Society of India
David J Kalupahana. A History of Buddhist Philosophy
David N Gellner, 2005. Rebuilding Buddhism: The Thervad Movement in
20th Century
David N Gellner, Niels Gutschow Bijaya Basukala (Illustrator)
The Nepalese Caitya
David Snellgrove, 1987. Indo Tibetan Buddhism
Deba Priya Barma; Atisha Dipankar Srijana: Eye of Asia
Kesar Lal, 2007. Legends of Kathmandu Valley

38 | P a g e

Legge, James in association with Max Muller prepared the scared books of
the East Series 50 volume published between 1879 and 1891
Locke, John K. S.
----- Karunamaya: The cult of Avaloketesvara 1980
----- Buddhist Monasteries of Nepal: A survey of the Baha and Bahis of
Kathmandu Valley
----- Legendary History of Kathmandu
Lienhard Siegfried, 1988. Nepalese Manuscripts Newari/ Sanskrit
Lopez, Don Jr. (edit) 1997. Atishas Journey to Tibet
Malalasekera, G P (Editor) 1963 Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Ceylon
Pal, Pratapaditya, 1974. The Arts of Nepal
Paul, Williams, 1989. Mahayana Buddhism
Ram, Dr. Rajendra; History of Buddhism in Nepal
Regmi Dilli Raman; Inscription of Ancient Nepal
Sakya Hem Raj,
---- Nepal Sanskritya Mulukha (Main entrance of Nepalese culture) 1969
---- Syambhu Maha Chaitya, 1098NS
Dr. Shrestha, Uma editor, Newa Vijnana: Journal of Newar Studies
Vaidya, Karunakar Buddhist tradition and Culture of Kathmandu Valley
Vajracharya, Dhana Vajra, Lichhavikalin Abhilekh, INAS Kathmandu 1973
Vajracharya, Gautam, 1987. Heritage of Kathmandu Valley
Vajracharya, Ratna Bahadur Gurumandalarachana va Prajnaparamitaya
artha sahitam (in Nepal Bhasha) NS 1095/1974 AD
Vajracharya,Ratna Kaji, Yen Deya Chaitya
Wright, Daniel ed. 1983
Nepal - History of the Country & People (1st edition 1877)
Yoshizaki Kasjumi, 1979
---- Study of Saddharmamala
39 | P a g e

---- Kathmandu Valley as a Water Pot, Kurokami Library, Kumamoto,

Japan
Books related to Prajnaparamita (The Korean Buddhist Canon:
A descriptive Catalogue edited by R. Lanceaster, Berkley 1979)

Adhyardhasatika Prajnaparamita Translated in many languages are in the

collection of Libraries around the globe.
Astadasasahasrika Pranjaparamita (18,000 lines 3 Volume) edited by Bidyabinoda (Memoirs of the Archeological Survey of India No.32 & 69) 1927
Astadasasahasrika Prajnaparamita 1082 NS. Jogmuni Bajracharya
Astasaharika Prajnaparamita 1888. R. Mittras in the Bibliotheca Indicia Vol.1
Dasasahasrika Prajnaparamita 1941 S Konow, OSLO (trans. from Tibetan)
Patashashrik Prajnaparamita --- Hsuan Tsang describes about Satashriska
Prajnaparamita with 100,000 lines (India visit 629-45).
Pancavimsatishasrika Prajnaparamita (25,000 lines) Edited by N Dutta 1934
Heart Sutra (14 lines) is the shortest form of Prajaparamita Text
Perfection of Wisdom in 8,000 lines written in Tibetan script E Conze (Trans)
Prajnaparamita Bhabanopadesh Ratnakarshanti Teacher of Atisa Dipankar
Prajnaparamita Rdaya Sutra (Heart Sutra) edited by E Conze
Prajnaparamita Rdaya Sutra (Heart Sutra) edited by M Muller, Oxford 1912
Prajnaparamita Sutra. The Perfection of Wisdom (25,000 lines)
Cambridge University
Preliminary note on Prajnaparamita Manuscript E. Conze, Journal of Royal
Asiatic Society Vol. 82 (Issue 1-2 page 32-36, 2011)
Satashasrika Prajnaparamita (100,000 verses) translated from Pali in the
Tibetan language during 9th century by Subrenbodieg, Tibetan Monk
Ye-Se-sde and Jian Shree Mitra - disciple of Manjushree
(Bibliotheca Indica 1902-1913)
40 | P a g e

The Composition of the Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita -- Edward Conze

(Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies Vol. 14 Issue 2 /
251-262 page, 24 Dec. 2008)
Hsuan Tsang describes about The Perfection of Wisdom with 100,000 lines
during his visit to India and Nepal 659-663 AD
The Prajnaparamita Literature 1960 Edward Conze, Manton, The Hague
Vajracchedika Prajnaparamita 1881 edited by M Muller Oxford
Books related to Jataka Stories
1) Buddhist birth-stories; Jataka tales translated from Pali text, 1880
(Jataka Thavannana -The oldest collection of Jataka Folklor by V.
Fausbll's edited and translated into English by T.W. Rhys Davids
2) A Jataka Tale from the Chinese translation by Samuel Bell 1880
3) The Jataka or the stories of the Buddha's former births in 6 Vol. by Prof.
Cowell, Edward Byles (Valahassa Jataka) Pali text Society London 1895
4) The Ocean Stream of Story
C H Tawney's translation of Katha Sarit Sagar by Somdev
5) Jataka: A Tale -Tell vision of Buddhism by Professor E B Cowell
6) Jatakamala by J. S. Speyer
7) Jataka (six volumes): translated by Bhadanta Ananda ausalyayana.
8) Ancient Tales of Wisdom - Jataka Tales H. T. Francis and E. J. Thomas
9) JatakaTales by Ellen C Babbill
10) The Jataka Tales of Anterior Births of Gotama Buddha (six vol.) Oxford
11) Jataka: The Illustrated Jataka & Other Stories of the Buddha
by C.B. Varma
12) Stories of Buddha: being selection from the Jataka translated and edited
by Caroline A F Rhys Davids 1989
13) The Jataka Story in Japan 1999 Anita Khanna
41 | P a g e

14) 365 Jataka Tales & other Stories

Books related to Ajanta (For further study)
1) The Ajanta Caves: Ancient Paintings of Buddhist India by Benoy K. Behl
2) Ajanta Caves: History and Mystery P.C. Ramakrishna
3) Ajanta, S Vinekar MD, N. Brunswick, NJ Middlesex
4) Ajanta and Ellora: Cave Temples of Ancient India, Pushpesh Pant
5) Ajanta Monumental Legancy by A P Jainkhedkar
6) Guide to the Ajanta Paintings
Latest News!
Ven. Tsering, a Kopan monk who has been tirelessly working on this
project, has now completed the first volume of the Prajnaparamita and is
3/4 of the way finishing the second volume, of the Prajnaparamita! Ven.
Tsering is writing out the 100,000 verses of the Prajnaparamita (12
volumes) and has been working on this for the last 10 years. Lama Zopa
Rinpoche is extremely pleased with the quality and dedication of his work.
Writing the Prajnaparamita and Sanghata Sutra is a project of Foundation
for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition Inc. USA.
Lama Zopa Rinpoche is the founder chairperson of FPMT (Foundation for
the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition Inc. USA) and the Int'l head
quarter is located in California, USA.
1840 414st Ave. 102-217
P.O. Box 295 Capitol, CA 95010
fpmtnorthamerica@gmail.com

42 | P a g e