Power Electronics Control of Wind Energy in Distributed Power Systems 333

X

Power EIectronics ControI of Wind Energy in
Distributed Power Systems

IIorin Iov and Irede Iaaljerg
Dcpar|mcn| cf |ncrgq Tccnnc|cgq, Aa||crg Unitcrsi|q
Dcnmar|

1. Introduction
In cIassicaI pover syslens, Iarge pover generalion pIanls Iocaled al adequale geographicaI
pIaces produce nosl of lhe pover, vhich is lhen lransferred lovards Iarge consunplion
cenlres over Iong dislance lransnission Iines. The syslen conlroI cenlres nonilor and
reguIale lhe pover syslen conlinuousIy lo ensure lhe quaIily of lhe pover, naneIy
frequency and voIlage. Hovever, nov lhe overaII pover syslen is changing, a Iarge nunler
of dispersed generalion (DC) unils, incIuding lolh renevalIe and non-renevalIe sources
such as vind lurlines, vave generalors, pholovoIlaic (IV) generalors, snaII hydro, fueI
ceIIs and gas/slean povered Conlined Heal and Iover (CHI) slalions, are leing
deveIoped (Heier, 1998), (ossany, 2OOO) and inslaIIed. A vide-spread use of renevalIe
energy sources in dislrilulion nelvorks and a high penelralion IeveI viII le seen in lhe near
fulure in nany pIaces. Ior inslance Dennark has a high pover capacily penelralion (> 2O)
of vind energy in najor areas of lhe counlry and loday around 2O of lhe vhoIe eIeclricaI
energy consunplion is covered ly lhe vind energy. The nain advanlages of using
renevalIe energy sources are lhe eIininalion of harnfuI enissions and inexhauslilIe
resources of lhe prinary energy. The avaiIaliIily of renevalIe energy sources has slrong
daiIy and seasonaI pallerns and lhe pover denand ly lhe consuners couId have a very
differenl characlerislic. Therefore, il is difficuIl lo operale a pover syslen inslaIIed vilh
onIy renevalIe generalion unils due lo lhe characlerislic differences and lhe high
uncerlainly in lhe avaiIaliIily of lhe renevalIe energy sources. This is furlher slrenglhened
as no reaI Iarge energy slorage syslens exisl.
The vind lurline lechnoIogy is one of lhe nosl energing renevalIe energy lechnoIogies. Il
slarled in lhe 198Oes vilh a fev lens of kW pover capacily lo loday vilh nuIli-MW size
vind lurlines lhal are leing inslaIIed. Il aIso neans lhal vind pover produclion in lhe
leginning did nol have any inpacl on lhe pover syslen conlroI lul nov due lo lheir size
lhey have lo pIay an aclive roIe in lhe grid. The lechnoIogy used in vind lurlines vas in lhe
leginning lased on a squirreI-cage induclion generalor connecled direclIy lo lhe grid. y
lhal pover puIsalions in lhe vind are aInosl direclIy lransferred lo lhe eIeclricaI grid.
Iurlhernore, lhere is no conlroI of lhe aclive and reaclive pover, vhich lypicaIIy are
inporlanl conlroI paranelers lo reguIale lhe frequency and lhe voIlage. As lhe pover range
of lhe lurlines increases lhese conlroI paranelers lecone nore inporlanl and il is
18
Renewable Energy 334

necessary lo inlroduce pover eIeclronics (Hansen el aI., 2OO2) as an inlerface lelveen lhe
vind lurline and lhe grid. The pover eIeclronics is changing lhe lasic characlerislic of lhe
vind lurline fron leing an energy source lo le an aclive pover source. The eIeclricaI
lechnoIogy used in vind lurlines is nol nev. Il has leen discussed for severaI years e.g.
(Hansen el aI. 2OO4), (Cerlnar, 2OO3), (Iaaljerg el aI., 2OO4), (Iov & Iaaljerg, 2OO7) elc. lul
nov lhe price pr. produced kWh is so Iov, lhal soIulions vilh pover eIeclronics are very
allraclive.
IirslIy, lhe lasic deveIopnenl in pover eIeclronics and pover eIeclronic conversion viII le
discussed. Then, differenl vind lurline configuralions viII le expIained lolh
aerodynanicaIIy and eIeclricaIIy. A shorl overviev of lhe inlerconneclion requirenenls viII
le given. AIso, differenl conlroI nelhods for pover converlers vilhin a vind lurline syslen
viII le presenled. IinaIIy, a generaI lechnoIogy slalus of lhe vind pover is presenled
denonslraling sliII nore efficienl and allraclive pover source for lhe fulure.

2. Modern power eIectronics
Iover eIeclronics has changed rapidIy during lhe Iasl lhirly years and lhe nunler of
appIicalions has leen increasing, nainIy due lo lhe deveIopnenls of lhe seniconduclor
devices and lhe nicroprocessor lechnoIogy. Ior lolh cases higher perfornance is sleadiIy
given for lhe sane area of siIicon, and al lhe sane line lhey are conlinuousIy reducing in
price. A lypicaI pover eIeclronic syslen, consisling of a pover converler, a renevalIe
energy source and a conlroI unil, is shovn in Iig. 1.

Iig. 1. Iover eIeclronic syslen vilh lhe grid, renevalIe source, pover converler and
conlroI.

The pover converler is lhe inlerface lelveen lhe generalor and lhe grid. TypicaIIy, lhe
pover fIov is uni-direclionaI fron lhe generalor lo lhe eIeclricaI nelvork. Three inporlanl
issues are of concern using such a syslen naneIy lhe reIialiIily, lhe efficiency and Iasl lul
nol Ieasl lhe cosl. CurrenlIy, lhe cosl of pover seniconduclor devices is decreasing 15
every year for lhe sane oulpul perfornance and lhe price pr. kW for a pover eIeclronic
syslen is aIso decreasing. An exanpIe of a nass-produced and high conpelilive pover
eIeclronic syslen is an adjuslalIe speed drive (ASD). The lrend of veighl, size, nunler of
conponenls and funclions in a slandard Danfoss Drives A/S frequency converler can le
seen in Iig. 2. Il cIearIy shovs lhal pover eIeclronic conversion is shrinking in voIune and
veighl. Il aIso shovs lhal nore inlegralion is an inporlanl key lo le conpelilive as veII as
nore funclions lecone avaiIalIe in such a producl.
Power Electronics Control of Wind Energy in Distributed Power Systems 335


Iig. 2. DeveIopnenl of slandard adjuslalIe speed drives for lhe Iasl four decades.

The key driver of lhis deveIopnenl is lhal lhe pover eIeclronic device lechnoIogy is sliII
undergoing inporlanl progress. An overviev of differenl pover devices and lhe areas
vhere lhe deveIopnenl is sliII going on is presenled in Iig. 3.

Iig. 3. DeveIopnenl of pover seniconduclor devices in lhe pasl and in lhe fulure (lased on
(aIiga, 1995)).

The onIy pover device vhich is nol under deveIopnenl anynore is lhe siIicon-lased pover
lipoIar lransislor lecause MOS-galed devices are preferalIe in lhe sense of easy conlroI. The
lreakdovn voIlage and/or currenl carrying capaliIily of lhe conponenls are aIso
conlinuousIy increasing. Inporlanl research is going on lo change lhe naleriaI fron siIicon
lo siIicon carlide, vhich nay dranalicaIIy increase lhe pover densily of pover converlers
as veII as lheir voIlage capaliIily. Using such devices a direcl conneclion on lhe nediun
voIlage nelvorks of lhe pover converlers vilhoul a slep-up lransforner nay le possilIe.

3. Wind energy conversion
Wind lurlines caplure pover fron lhe vind ly neans of aerodynanicaIIy designed lIades
and converl il lo rolaling nechanicaI pover. The nunler of lIades is lhree in a nodern
Renewable Energy 336

vind lurline. As lhe lIade lip-speed shouId le Iover lhan haIf lhe speed of sound lhe
rolalionaI speed viII decrease as lhe radius of lhe lIade increases. Ior nuIli-MW vind
lurlines lhe rolalionaI speed is lypicaIIy 1O-15 rpn. The nosl veighl efficienl vay lo
converl lhe Iov-speed, high-lorque pover lo eIeclricaI pover is lo use a gear-lox and a
slandard fixed speed generalor as iIIuslraled in Iig. 4.

Iig. 4. Converling vind pover lo eIeclricaI pover in a vind lurline (lased on
Kaznierkovski el aI., 2OO2)).

The gear-lox is oplionaI as nuIli-poIe generalor syslens are aIso possilIe soIulions.
elveen lhe grid and lhe generalor a pover converler can le inserled. The possilIe
lechnicaI soIulions are nany and a lechnoIogicaI roadnap slarling vilh vind
energy/pover and converling lhe nechanicaI pover inlo eIeclricaI pover is shovn in Iig.
5. The eIeclricaI oulpul can eilher le AC or DC. In lhe Iasl case a pover converler viII le
used as inlerface lo lhe grid.

Iig. 5. TechnoIogicaI roadnap for vind lurlines lechnoIogy (lased on (Hansen el aI.,
2OO1)).

The deveIopnenl in vind lurline syslens has leen sleady for lhe Iasl 25 years and four lo
five generalions of vind lurlines exisl and il is nov proven lechnoIogy. Il is inporlanl lo le
alIe lo conlroI and Iinil lhe converled nechanicaI pover al higher vind speed, as lhe
pover in lhe vind is a cule of lhe vind speed. The pover Iinilalion nay le done eilher ly
Power Electronics Control of Wind Energy in Distributed Power Systems 337

slaII conlroI (lhe lIade posilion is fixed lul slaII of lhe vind appears aIong lhe lIade al
higher vind speed), aclive slaII (lhe lIade angIe is adjusled in order lo creale slaII aIong lhe
lIades) or pilch conlroI (lhe lIades are lurned oul of lhe vind al higher vind speed)
(Hansen el aI., 2OO4), (Iov & Iaaljerg, 2OO7). The lasic oulpul characlerislics of lhese lhree
nelhods of conlroIIing lhe pover are sunnarized in Iig. 6. The nodern vind lurlines use
onIy aclive slaII and pilch conlroI.

Iig. 6. Iover characlerislics of differenl vind lurline syslens.

Anolher conlroI varialIe in a vind lurline syslen is lhe speed. ased on lhis crilerion lhe
vind lurlines are cIassified inlo lvo nain calegories (Hansen el aI., 2OO4), (Iov & Iaaljerg,
2OO7), naneIy fixed speed and varialIe speed vind lurlines respecliveIy.
AddilionaIIy, lhe presence of pover converlers in vind lurlines aIso provides high
polenliaI conlroI capaliIilies for lolh Iarge nodern vind lurlines and vind farns lo fuIfiI
lhe high lechnicaI denands inposed ly lhe grid operalors (Sorensen el aI., 2OOO), (Hansen el
aI., 2OO4), (MiIlorrov, 2OO5) and (Iov & Iaaljerg, 2OO7), such as: conlroIIalIe aclive and
reaclive pover (frequency and voIlage conlroI), quick response under lransienl and
dynanic pover syslen silualions, infIuence on nelvork slaliIily and inproved pover
quaIily.

4. Wind Turbine Concepts
The nosl connonIy appIied vind lurline designs can le calegorized inlo four vind lurline
concepls. The nain differences lelveen lhese concepls concern lhe generaling syslen and
lhe vay in vhich lhe aerodynanic efficiency of lhe rolor is Iiniled during alove lhe raled
vaIue in order lo prevenl overIoading. These concepls are presenled lriefIy in lhe foIIoving
paragraphs.

4.1 Fixed Speed Wind Turbines
This configuralion corresponds lo lhe so caIIed Danish concepl lhal vas very popuIar in
8Os. This vind lurline is fixed speed conlroIIed nachine, vilh asynchronous squirreI cage
induclion generalor (SCIC) direclIy connecled lo lhe grid via a lransforner as shovn in Iig.
7. This concepl needs a reaclive pover conpensalor lo reduce (aInosl eIininale) lhe reaclive
pover denand fron lhe lurline generalors lo lhe grid. Il is usuaIIy done ly conlinuousIy
Renewable Energy 338

svilching capacilor lanks foIIoving lhe produclion varialion (5-25 sleps) Snoolher grid
conneclion occurs ly incorporaling a sofl-slarler. RegardIess lhe pover conlroI principIe in a
fixed speed vind lurline, lhe vind fIuclualions are converled inlo nechanicaI fIuclualions
and furlher inlo eIeclricaI pover fIuclualions. These can yieId lo voIlage fIuclualions al lhe
poinl of conneclion in lhe case of a veak grid. ecause of lhese voIlage fIuclualions, lhe
fixed speed vind lurline dravs varying anounls of reaclive pover fron lhe uliIily grid (in
lhe case of no capacilor lank), vhich increases lolh lhe voIlage fIuclualions and lhe Iine
Iosses.

Iig. 7. Iixed speed vind lurline vilh direclIy grid connecled squirreI-cage induclion
generalor.

Thus, lhis concepl does nol supporl any speed conlroI, requires a sliff grid and ils
nechanicaI conslruclion nusl le alIe lo supporl high nechanicaI slress caused ly vind
gusls.

4.2 PartiaI VariabIe Speed Wind Turbine with VariabIe Rotor Resistance
This configuralion corresponds lo lhe Iiniled varialIe speed conlroIIed vind lurline vilh
varialIe rolor resislance, knovn as OpliSIip (VeslasTM) as presenled in Iig. 8.

Iig. 8. IarliaI varialIe speed vind lurline vilh varialIe rolor resislance.

The generalor is direclIy connecled lo lhe grid. The rolor vinding of lhe generalor is
connecled in series vilh a conlroIIed resislance, vhose size defines lhe range of lhe varialIe
speed (lypicaIIy O-1O alove synchronous speed). A capacilor lank perforns lhe reaclive
pover conpensalion and snoolh grid conneclion occurs ly neans of a sofl-slarler. An exlra
resislance is added in lhe rolor circuil, vhich can le conlroIIed ly pover eIeclronics. Thus,
lhe lolaI rolor resislance is conlroIIalIe and lhe sIip and lhus lhe pover oulpul in lhe syslen
are conlroIIed. The dynanic speed conlroI range depends on lhe size of lhe varialIe rolor
resislance. TypicaIIy lhe speed range is O-1O alove synchronous speed. The energy coning
fron lhe exlernaI pover conversion unil is dunped as heal Ioss.

4.3 VariabIe Speed WT with partiaI-scaIe power converter
This configuralion, knovn as lhe doulIy-fed induclion generalor (DIIC) concepl,
corresponds lo lhe varialIe speed conlroIIed vind lurline vilh a vound rolor induclion
Power Electronics Control of Wind Energy in Distributed Power Systems 339

generalor (WRIC) and parliaI-scaIe pover converler (raled lo approx. 3O of noninaI
generalor pover) on lhe rolor circuil as shovn in Iig. 9. The slalor is direclIy connecled lo
lhe grid, vhiIe a parliaI-scaIe pover converler conlroIs lhe rolor frequency and lhus lhe
rolor speed.

Iig. 9. VarialIe speed vind lurline vilh parliaI scaIe pover converler.

The pover raling of lhis parliaI-scaIe frequency converler defines lhe speed range (lypicaIIy
3O around synchronous speed). Moreover, lhis converler perforns lhe reaclive pover
conpensalion and a snoolh grid conneclion. The conlroI range of lhe rolor speed is vide
conpared lo lhal of OpliSIip. Moreover, il caplures lhe energy, vhich in lhe OpliSIip
concepl is lurned off in lhe conlroIIalIe rolor resislance. The snaIIer frequency converler
nakes lhis concepl allraclive fron an econonicaI poinl of viev. Moreover, lhe pover
eIeclronics is enalIing lhe vind lurline lo acl as a nore dynanic pover source lo lhe grid.
Hovever, ils nain dravlacks are lhe use of sIip-rings and lhe conpIicaled proleclion
schenes in lhe case of grid fauIls.

4.4 VariabIe speed wind turbine with fuII-rating power converter
This configuralion corresponds lo lhe varialIe speed conlroIIed vind lurline, vilh lhe
generalor connecled lo lhe grid lhrough a fuII-raling pover converler as shovn in Iig. 1O.

Iig. 1O. VarialIe speed vind lurline vilh fuII-raling pover converler.

The pover converler perforns lhe reaclive pover conpensalion and a snoolh grid
conneclion for lhe enlire speed range. The generalor can le eIeclricaIIy exciled (vound rolor
synchronous generalor WRSC) or pernanenl nagnel exciled lype (pernanenl nagnel
synchronous generalor IMSC). The slalor vindings are connecled lo lhe grid lhrough a fuII-
scaIe pover converler. RecenlIy, due lo lhe advancenenl in lhe pover eIeclronics lhe
squirreI-cage induclion generalor has aIso slarled lo le used for lhis concepl.
Sone varialIe speed vind lurlines syslens are gearIess - see dolled gearlox in Iig. 1O. In
lhese cases, a direcl driven nuIli-poIe generalor is used. The vind lurline conpanies
Lnercon, Sienens Wind Iover, Made and Lagervey are exanpIes of nanufaclurers using
lhis configuralion.
The varialIe speed vind lurlines are designed lo achieve naxinun aerodynanic efficiency
over a vide range of vind speed. y inlroducing lhe varialIe speed operalion, il is possilIe
lo conlinuousIy adapl (acceIerale or deceIerale) lhe rolalionaI speed of lhe vind lurline lo
lhe vind speed, in such a vay lhal lip speed ralio is kepl conslanl lo a predefined vaIue
Renewable Energy 340

corresponding lo lhe naxinun pover coefficienl. Conlrary lo a fixed speed syslen, a
varialIe speed syslen keeps lhe generalor lorque nearIy conslanl. Thus, lhe varialions in
vind are alsorled ly lhe generalor speed changes.
Seen fron lhe vind lurline poinl of viev, lhe nosl inporlanl advanlages of lhe varialIe
speed operalion conpared lo lhe convenlionaI fixed speed operalion are: reduced
nechanicaI slress on lhe nechanicaI conponenls such as shafl and gearlox, increased
pover caplure and reduced acouslicaI noise.

5. Grid connection requirements for wind power
Sone Luropean counlries have al lhis nonenl dedicaled grid codes for vind pover. These
requirenenls refIecl, in nosl of lhe cases, lhe penelralion of vind pover inlo lhe eIeclricaI
nelvork or lhal a fulure deveIopnenl is prepared.
The requirenenls for vind pover cover a vide range of voIlage IeveIs fron nediun
voIlage lo very high voIlage. The grid codes for vind pover address issues lhal nake lhe
vind farns lo acl as a convenlionaI pover pIanl inlo lhe eIeclricaI nelvork. These
requirenenls have focus on pover conlroIIaliIily, pover quaIily, fauIl ride-lhrough
capaliIily and grid supporl during nelvork dislurlances. According lo severaI references
e.g. (Hansen el aI., 2OO4) and (MiIlorrov, 2OO5) in sone of lhe cases lhese requirenenls are
very slringenl. An overviev of lhe nosl inporlanl requirenenls of lhe Luropean grid codes
is given in lhe foIIoving lased on (Iov & Iaaljerg, 2OO7).

5.1 Active power controI
According lo lhis denand lhe vind lurlines nusl le alIe lo conlroI lhe aclive in lhe Ioinl-
of-Connon-CoupIing (ICC) in a given pover range. The aclive pover is lypicaIIy
conlroIIed lased on lhe syslen frequency e.g. Dennark, IreIand, Cernany so lhal lhe pover
deIivered lo lhe grid is decreased vhen lhe grid frequency rise alove 5O Hz. A lypicaI
characlerislic for lhe frequency conlroI in lhe Danish grid code is shovn in Iig. 11.


Iig. 11. Irequency conlroI characlerislic for lhe vind lurlines connecled lo lhe Danish grid.

Power Electronics Control of Wind Energy in Distributed Power Systems 341

On lhe conlrary olher grid codes, e.g. Creal rilain specifies lhal lhe aclive pover oulpul
nusl le kepl conslanl for lhe frequency range 49.5 lo 5O.5 Hz, and a drop of naxinun 5
in lhe deIivered pover is aIIoved vhen frequency drops lo 47 Hz.
CurlaiInenl of produced pover lased on syslen operalor denands is required in Dennark,
IreIand, Cernany and Creal rilain. CurrenlIy, Dennark has lhe nosl denanding
requirenenls regarding lhe conlroIIaliIily of lhe produced pover. Wind farns connecled al
lhe lransnission IeveI shaII acl as a convenlionaI pover pIanl providing a vide range of
conlroIIing lhe oulpul pover lased on Transnission Syslen Operalors (TSO) denands and
aIso parlicipalion in prinary and secondary conlroI. Seven pover reguIalion funclions, each
of lhen priorilized, are required in lhe vind farn conlroI as shovn in Iig. 12.


Iig. 12. ReguIalion funclions for aclive pover required ly lhe Danish grid codes in lhe vind
farn conlroIIer.

Il nusl le noliced lhal lhe frequency conlroI characlerislic presenled in Iig 11 has lhe
second priorily. Using aII lhese pover reguIalion funclions a vind farn can le operaled as a
convenlionaI pover pIanl.

5.2 Reactive power controI and voItage stabiIity
Reaclive pover is lypicaIIy conlroIIed in a given range. The grid codes specify in differenl
vays lhis conlroI capaliIily. The Danish grid code gives a land for conlroIIing lhe reaclive
pover lased on lhe aclive pover oulpul as shovn in Iig. 13.

Iig. 13. Danish grid code denands for lhe reaclive pover exchange in lhe ICC.
Renewable Energy 342

The Irish grid code specifies e.g. lhe reaclive pover capaliIily in lerns of pover faclor and
reaclive pover as shovn in Iig. 14 vhiIe lhe Cernan lransnission grid code for vind
pover specifies lhal lhe vind pover unils nusl provide a reaclive pover provision in lhe
conneclion poinl vilhoul Iiniling lhe aclive pover oulpul as shovn in Iig. 15.


Iig. 14. Requirenenls for reaclive pover conlroI in lhe Irish grid code for vind lurlines.


Iig. 15. Requirenenls for reaclive pover provision of generaling unils vilhoul Iiniling lhe
aclive pover oulpul in lhe Cernan lransnission grid code.

5.3. Low-voItage ride-through capabiIity
AII considered grid codes requires fauIl ride-lhrough capaliIilies for vind lurlines. VoIlage
profiIes are given specifying lhe deplh of lhe voIlage dip and lhe cIearance line as veII. One
of lhe prolIens is lhal lhe caIcuIalion of lhe voIlage during aII lypes of unsynnelricaI fauIls
is nol very veII defined in sone grid codes. The voIlage profiIe for ride-lhrough capaliIily
can le sunnarized as shovn in Iig. 16.
Power Electronics Control of Wind Energy in Distributed Power Systems 343


Iig. 16. VoIlage profiIe for fauIl ride-lhrough capaliIily for vind pover in Luropean grid
codes.

IreIands grid code is very denanding in respecl vilh lhe fauIl duralion vhiIe Dennark has
lhe Iovesl shorl circuil line duralion vilh onIy 1OO nsec. Hovever, Dennarks grid code
requires lhal lhe vind lurline shaII renain connecled lo lhe eIeclricaI nelvork during
successive fauIls vhich is a lechnicaI chaIIenge. On lhe olher hand Cernany and Spain
requires grid supporl during fauIls ly reaclive currenl injeclion up lo 1OO fron lhe raled
currenl as shovn in Iig. 17. This denand is reIalive difficuIl lo neel ly sone of lhe vind
lurline concepls e.g. aclive slaII vind lurline vilh direclIy grid connecled squirreI cage
induclion generalor.

Iig. 17. Reaclive currenl supporl during fauIls as specified in lhe Cernan grid code.

Since nore Luropean counlries are pIanning lo increase lhe inslaIIed vind pover capacily a
change in lheir grid code requirenenls is expecled in lhe near fulure. AIso, in order lo
acconnodale nore vind pover inlo lhe eIeclricaI nelvorks, lhese conneclion requirenenls
viII le nore denanding.

6. Power converter topoIogies for wind turbines

asicaIIy lvo pover converler lopoIogies vilh fuII conlroIIaliIily of lhe generaled voIlage
are currenlIy used in lhe connerciaI vind lurline syslens. These pover converlers are
Renewable Energy 344

reIaled lo lhe parliaI-raling pover converler vind lurline and lhe fuII-raling one. Hovever,
olher lopoIogies have leen proposed in lhe Iasl years.

6.1 Bi-directionaI back-to-back two-IeveI power converter
The lack-lo-lack IuIse Widlh ModuIalion-VoIlage Source Converler is a li-direclionaI
pover converler consisling of lvo convenlionaI IWM-VSCs. The lopoIogy is shovn in Iig.
18.

Iig. 18. Slruclure of lhe lack-lo-lack voIlage source converler.

The IWM-VSC is lhe nosl frequenlIy used lhree-phase frequency converler. As a
consequence of lhis, lhe knovIedge avaiIalIe in lhe fieId is exlensive and very veII
eslalIished. Iurlhernore, nany nanufaclurers produce conponenls especiaIIy designed for
use in lhis lype of converler (e.g., a lransislor-pack conprising six lridge coupIed lransislors
and anli-paraIIeIed diodes). Therefore, lhe conponenl cosls can le Iov conpared lo
converlers requiring conponenls designed for a niche produclion. A lechnicaI advanlage of
lhe IWM-VSC is lhe capacilor decoupIing lelveen lhe grid inverler and lhe generalor
inverler. esides affording sone proleclion, lhis decoupIing offers separale conlroI of lhe
lvo inverlers, aIIoving conpensalion of asynnelry lolh on lhe generalor side and on lhe
grid side, independenlIy. The incIusion of a loosl induclance in lhe DC-Iink circuil increases
lhe conponenl counl, lul a posilive effecl is lhal lhe loosl induclance reduces lhe denands
on lhe perfornance of lhe grid side harnonic fiIler, and offers sone proleclion of lhe
converler againsl alnornaI condilions on lhe grid.
Hovever, sone disadvanlages of lhe lack-lo-lack IWM-VSC are reporled in Iileralure
(Hansen el aI., 2OO2) and (Kaznierkovski el aI., 2OO2). In severaI papers concerning
adjuslalIe speed drives, lhe presence of lhe DC-Iink capacilor is nenlioned as a dravlack,
since: il is luIky and heavy, - il increases lhe cosls and nayle of nosl inporlance, - il
reduces lhe overaII Iifeline of lhe syslen.
Anolher inporlanl dravlack of lhe lack-lo-lack IWM-VSI is lhe svilching Iosses. Lvery
connulalion in lolh lhe grid inverler and lhe generalor inverler lelveen lhe upper and
Iover DC-Iink lranch is associaled vilh a hard svilching and a naluraI connulalion. Since
lhe lack-lo-lack IWM-VSI consisls of lvo inverlers, lhe svilching Iosses nighl le even
nore pronounced. The high svilching speed lo lhe grid nay aIso require exlra LMI-fiIlers.
To prevenl high slresses on lhe generalor insuIalion and lo avoid learing currenl prolIens
lhe voIlage gradienl nay have lo le Iiniled ly appIying an oulpul fiIler.
This lopoIogy is slale-of-lhe-arl especiaIIy in Iarge DIIC lased vind lurlines e.g. (CarIson el
aI., 1996), (hovnik el aI., 1999), (Lkanayake el aI., 2OO3), (Cerlnar, 2OO3) and (Carrasco el
aI., 2OO6). Hovever, recenlIy sone vind lurline nanufaclurers use lhis lopoIogy for fuII-
raling pover converler vind lurlines vilh squirreI-cage induclion generalor (e.g. Sienens
Wind Iover). The lopoIogy can aIso le used for pernanenl nagnel synchronous
generalors.
Power Electronics Control of Wind Energy in Distributed Power Systems 345

6.2 UnidirectionaI power converter
A vound rolor synchronous generalor requires onIy a sinpIe diode lridge reclifier for lhe
generalor side converler as shovn in Iig. 19.

Iig. 19. VarialIe speed vind lurline vilh synchronous generalor and fuII-raling pover
converler.

The diode reclifier is lhe nosl connon used lopoIogy in pover eIeclronic appIicalions. Ior
a lhree-phase syslen il consisls of six diodes. The diode reclifier can onIy le used in one
quadranl, il is sinpIe and il is nol possilIe lo conlroI il. Il couId le used in sone
appIicalions vilh a DC-Iink. The varialIe speed operalion of lhe vind lurline is achieved ly
using an exlra pover converler vhich feed lhe excilalion vinding. The grid side converler
viII offer a decoupIed conlroI of lhe aclive and reaclive pover deIivered lo lhe grid and aIso
aII lhe grid supporl fealures. These vind lurlines can have a gearlox or lhey can le direcl-
driven (Dulois el aI., 2OOO). In order lo achieve varialIe speed operalion lhe vind lurlines
equipped vilh a pernanenl nagnel synchronous generalor (IMSC) viII require a loosl
DC-DC converler inserled in lhe DC-Iink.

Iig. 2O. IuII raling pover converler vind lurline vilh pernanenl nagnel generalor.

6.3 MuItiIeveI power converter
CurrenlIy, lhere is an increasing inleresl in nuIliIeveI pover converlers especiaIIy for
nediun lo high-pover, high-voIlage vind lurline appIicalions (Carrasco el aI., 2OO6) and
(IorliIIo el aI., 2OO6).
Since lhe deveIopnenl of lhe neulraI-poinl cIanped lhree-IeveI converler (Nalae el aI.,
1981), severaI aIlernalive nuIliIeveI converler lopoIogies have leen reporled in lhe
Iileralure. The generaI idea lehind lhe nuIliIeveI converler lechnoIogy is lo creale a
sinusoidaI voIlage fron severaI IeveIs of voIlages, lypicaIIy ollained fron capacilor voIlage
sources. The differenl proposed nuIliIeveI converler lopoIogies can le cIassified in lhe
foIIoving five calegories (Hansen el aI., 2OO2), (Carrasco el aI., 2OO6) and (Wu, 2OO6):
nuIliIeveI configuralions vilh diode cIanps, nuIliIeveI configuralions vilh li-direclionaI
svilch inlerconneclion, nuIliIeveI configuralions vilh fIying capacilors, nuIliIeveI
configuralions vilh nuIlipIe lhree-phase inverlers and nuIliIeveI configuralions vilh
cascaded singIe phase H-lridge inverlers. These lopoIogies are shovn in Iig. 21 (Hansen el
aI., 2OO2).
Renewable Energy 346


Iig. 21. MuIliIeveI lopoIogies: a) one Ieg of a lhree-IeveI diode cIanped converler, l) one Ieg
of a lhree-IeveI converler vilh lidireclionaI svilch inlerconneclion, c) one Ieg of a lhree-
IeveI fIying capacilor converler, d) lhree-IeveI converler using lhree lvo-IeveI converlers
and e) one Ieg of a lhree-IeveI H-lridge cascaded converler (Hansen el aI., 2OO2).

IniliaIIy, lhe nain purpose of lhe nuIliIeveI converler vas lo achieve a higher voIlage
capaliIily of lhe converlers. As lhe ralings of lhe conponenls increases and lhe svilching-
and conducling properlies inprove, lhe secondary effecls of appIying nuIliIeveI converlers
lecone nore and nore advanlageous. The reduced conlenl of harnonics in lhe inpul and
oulpul voIlage as veII as a reduced LMI is reporled (Hansen el aI., 2OO2). The svilching
Iosses of lhe nuIliIeveI converler are anolher fealure, vhich is oflen accenlualed in
Iileralure. In (Marchesoni & MazzuccheIIi, 1993), il is slaled, lhal for lhe sane harnonic
perfornance lhe svilching frequency can le reduced lo 25 of lhe svilching frequency of a
lvo-IeveI converler. Lven lhough lhe conduclion Iosses are higher for lhe nuIliIeveI
converler, lhe overaII efficiency for lhe diode cIanped nuIliIeveI converler is higher lhan
lhe efficiency for a conparalIe lvo-IeveI converler (Hansen el aI., 2OO2). Of course, lhe lrulh
in lhis asserlion depends on lhe ralio lelveen lhe svilching Iosses and lhe conduclion
Iosses.
Hovever, sone disadvanlages exisl and are reporled in Iileralure e.g. (Hansen el aI., 2OO2),
(Carrasco el aI., 2OO6), (IorliIIio el aI., 2OO6) and (Lai & Ieng, 1995). The nosl connonIy
reporled disadvanlage of lhe lhree IeveI converlers vilh spIil DC-Iink is lhe voIlage
inlaIance lelveen lhe upper and lhe Iover DC-Iink capacilor. NeverlheIess, for a lhree-
IeveI converler lhis prolIen is nol very serious, and lhe prolIen in lhe lhree-IeveI converler
is nainIy caused ly differences in lhe reaI capacilance of each capacilor, inaccuracies in lhe
dead-line inpIenenlalion or an unlaIanced Ioad (Shen & ullervorlh, 1997) and (Hansen
el aI., 2OO1). y a proper noduIalion conlroI of lhe svilches, lhe inlaIance prolIen can le
soIved (Sun-Kyoung Lin el aI., 1999). In (Shen & ullervorlh, 1997) lhe voIlage laIancing
prolIen is soIved ly hardvare, vhiIe (Nevlon & Sunner, 1997) and (Ieng el aI., 1995)
proposed soIulions lased on noduIalion conlroI. Hovever, vhelher lhe voIlage laIancing
prolIen is soIved ly hardvare or soflvare, il is necessary lo neasure lhe voIlage across lhe
capacilors in lhe DC-Iink.
The lhree-IeveI diode cIanped nuIliIeveI converler (Iig. 21a) and lhe lhree-IeveI fIying
capacilor nuIliIeveI converler (Iig. 21c) exhilils an unequaI currenl slress on lhe
seniconduclors. Il appears lhal lhe upper and Iover svilches in an inverler lranch nighl le
de-raled conpared lo lhe svilches in lhe niddIe. Ior an appropriale design of lhe converler,
differenl devices are required (Lai & Ieng, 1995). The unequaI currenl slress and lhe
unequaI voIlage slress nighl conslilule a design prolIen for lhe nuIliIeveI converler vilh
lidireclionaI svilch inlerconneclion presenled in Iig. 21l (Hansen el aI., 2OO2).
Power Electronics Control of Wind Energy in Distributed Power Systems 347

Il is evidenl for aII presenled lopoIogies in Iig. 21 lhal lhe nunler of seniconduclors in lhe
conducling palh is higher lhan for e.g. a lvo-IeveI converler. Thus, lhe conduclion Iosses of
lhe converler nighl increase. On lhe olher hand, each of lhe seniconduclors need onIy lo
lIock haIf lhe lolaI DC-Iink voIlage and for Iover voIlage ralings, lhe on-slale Iosses per
svilch decreases, vhich lo a cerlain exlenl nighl juslify lhe higher nunler of
seniconduclors in lhe conducling palh (Hansen el aI., 2OO2).

6.4 ModuIar power converters
Al Iov vind speeds and hence Iov IeveI of lhe produced pover, lhe fuII-raling pover
converler concepl exhilils Iov uliIizalion of lhe pover svilches and lhus increased pover
Iosses. Therefore, a concepl in vhich severaI pover converlers are running in paraIIeI is
used as shovn in Iig. 22. The pover converler in lhis case can le one of lhe slruclures
presenled alove. This configuralion can aIso le used for slandard generalors.
y inlroducing pover eIeclronics nany of lhe vind lurline syslens gel siniIar
perfornances vilh lhe convenlionaI pover pIanls. Modern vind lurlines have a fasl
response in respecl vilh lhe grid operalor denands. Hovever lhe produced reaI pover
depends on lhe avaiIalIe vind speed. The reaclive pover can in sone soIulions, e.g. fuII
scaIe pover converler lased vind lurlines, le deIivered vilhoul having any vind
producing aclive pover.


Iig. 22. IuII-raling pover converler lased vind lurline vilh n-paraIIeIed pover converlers.

These vind lurlines can aIso le aclive vhen a fauIl appears on lhe grid and vhere il is
necessary lo luiId lhe grid voIlage up again (Hansen el aI., 2OO4) and (Iov & Iaaljerg,
2OO7), having lhe possiliIily lo Iover lhe pover produclion even lhough nore pover is
avaiIalIe in lhe vind and lherely acl as a roIIing capacily for lhe pover syslen. IinaIIy,
sone syslens are alIe lo vork in isIand operalion in lhe case of a grid coIIapse.

7. ControI of generator-side converter
The conlroI of lhe generalor side-converler is lasicaIIy delernined ly lhe generalor lype.
Hovever, since lhe vind lurline concepls avaiIalIe on lhe narkel are lased on AC
nachines sone lasic conlroI configuralions can le idenlified. Il nusl le noliced lhal lhese
conlroI schenes have lheir origins in lhe nolor drives appIicalions and lhey have leen
adapled lo generalor node of operalion. The generaI slruclure of a generalor fed ly an ICT
lased pover converler is shovn in Iig. 23.
Renewable Energy 348


Iig. 23. CeneraI Iayoul of a VSC-fed lased lhree-phase AC generalor.

7.1 FieId oriented controI
IieId orienled conlroI is one of lhe nosl used conlroI nelhods of nodern AC drives syslens
(Vas, 1998) and (Codoy Sinoes & Iarral, 2OO4). The lasic idea lehind lhis conlroI nelhod is
lo lransforn lhe lhree-phase quanlilies in lhe AC nachine in an orlhogonaI dq syslen
aIigned lo one of lhe fIuxes in lhe nachine. Thus, a decoupIing in conlroIIing lhe fIux and
eIeclronagnelic lorque of lhe nachine is achieved. Tvo nelhods of fieId orienled conlroI
for induclion nachines are used naneIy: indirecl and direcl veclor conlroI. Lach of lhese
nelhods has advanlages and dravlacks. The indirecl veclor conlroI can operale in four-
quadranl dovn lo slandsliII and il is videIy used in lolh nolor drives and generalor
appIicalions. TypicaIIy lhe orlhogonaI synchronous reference frane is aIigned on lhe rolor
fIux. Hovever, lhis conlroI is highIy dependenl on nachine paranelers. The direcl veclor
conlroI orienled aIong lhe slalor fIux does nol need infornalion aloul lhe rolor speed and is
Iess sensilive lo lhe nachine paranelers. Hovever, il presenls Iov perfornances for Iov
speeds near lo slandsliII. A generaI conlroI slruclure for fieId orienled conlroI in
synchronous reference frane for induclion nachines is shovn in Iig. 24.

Iig. 24. CeneraI slruclure of a fieId orienled conlroI in synchronous reference frane for an
induclion nachine.

The eIeclronagnelic lorque is conlroIIed in q-axis vhiIe lhe d-axis conlroIs lhe fIux of lhe
nachine. The acluaI fIux and lorque as veII as lhe fIux angIe are delernined lased on lhe
nachine equalions using lhe currenls.
Power Electronics Control of Wind Energy in Distributed Power Systems 349

SiniIar conlroI slruclure is used for lhe DIIC syslens. TypicaIIy, lhe ouler conlroI Ioops are
used lo reguIale lhe aclive and reaclive pover on lhe slalor side of lhe nachine.

7.2 Direct torque controI
The Direcl Torque ConlroI proposed ly Depenlrock eIininales lhe inner currenl Ioops and
lhe needs of lransfornalions lelveen differenl references franes (Codoy Sinoes & Iarral,
2OO4). Il conlroIs direclIy lhe nagnilude of lhe slalor fIux and lhe eIeclronagnelic lorque of
lhe nachine ly using hysleresis conparalors as shovn in Iig. 25.
The oulpuls of lhe hysleresis conparalors as veII as lhe fIux angIe are used direclIy lo
delernine lhe svilching slales of lhe converler.
The perfornances of aII lhe conlroI schenes used for lhe generalor-side converler nusl le
evaIualed in lerns of currenl and hence lorque rippIe. High lorque rippIe can cause
danages inlo lhe gearlox, vhiIe inporlanl Iov frequency harnonics can induce resonances
vilh lhe nechanicaI slruclure of lhe vind lurline.

Iig. 25. CeneraI slruclure of lhe direcl lorque conlroI for AC nachines.

8. ControI of grid-side converter

IndependenlIy of lhe generalor lype and lhe pover converler configuralion, lhe grid side
converler is responsilIe for lhe quaIily of lhe generaled pover and lhe grid code
conpIiance. A lypicaI configuralion of lhe grid side converler in vind lurline appIicalions
is given in Iig. 26.

Iig. 26. Slruclure of lhe grid-side converler in vind lurline appIicalions.

The syslen consisl of a DC-Iink circuil, an ICT lased VoIlage Source Converler, an LC
fiIler, a Dyn11 lransforner and a calIe lo lhe Ioinl of Connon CoupIing. The LC fiIler is
used lo nininize lhe rippIe of lhe oulpul currenl due lo lhe svilching of lhe pover devices
Renewable Energy 350

8.1 Grid synchronization
IniliaIIy, lhe synchronizalion of lhe deIivered currenl vilh lhe uliIily nelvork voIlage vas a
lasic requirenenl for inlerconnecling dislriluled pover generalors vilh lhe pover syslen.
In case of vind lurlines, reaclive pover conlroI al lhe poinl of connon coupIing is
requesled. ConsequenlIy, lhe vind lurline conlroI shouId acconnodale an aIgorilhn
capalIe of delecling lhe phase angIe of grid voIlage in order lo synchronize lhe deIivered
currenl. Moreover, lhe phase angIe pIays an inporlanl roIe in conlroI, leing used lo
lransforn lhe feedlack varialIes lo a suilalIe reference frane in vhich lhe conlroI slruclure
is inpIenenled. Hence, phase angIe deleclion has a significanl roIe in conlroI of lhe grid
side converler in a vind lurline. Nunerous research papers reporl severaI aIgorilhns
capalIe of delecling lhe grid voIlage phase angIe, i.e. zero crossing deleclion, lhe use of a|an
funclion or Ihase-Locked Loop (ILL) lechnique.
An overviev of lhe grid synchronizalion and noniloring nelhods is presenled in lhe
foIIoving, lased on (Iov & Iaaljerg, 2OO7) and (Iov el aI., 2OO8).

8.1.1 Zero crossing method
A sinpIe nelhod of ollaining lhe phase and frequency infornalion is lo delecl lhe zero-
crossing poinl of lhe grid voIlage (Mur el aI., 1998), (Choi el aI., 2OO6). This nelhod has lvo
najor dravlacks as descriled in lhe foIIoving.
Since lhe zero crossing poinl can le delecled onIy al every haIf cycIe of lhe uliIily frequency,
lhe phase lracking aclion is inpossilIe lelveen lhe delecling poinls and lhus lhe fasl
dynanic perfornance can nol le ollained (Chung, 2OOO). Sone vork has leen done in
order lo aIIeviale lhis prolIen using nuIlipIe IeveI crossing deleclion as presenled in
(Nguyen & Srinivasan, 1984).
Significanl Iine voIlage dislorlion due lo nolches caused ly pover device svilching and/or
Iov frequency harnonic conlenl can easiIy corrupl lhe oulpul of a convenlionaI zero-
crossing deleclor (McCralh el aI., 2OO5). Therefore, lhe zero-crossing deleclion of lhe grid
voIlage needs lo ollain ils fundanenlaI conponenl al lhe Iine frequency. This lask is
usuaIIy nade ly a digilaI fiIler. In order lo avoid lhe deIay inlroduced ly lhis fiIler
nunerous lechniques are used in lhe lechnicaI Iileralure. Melhods lased on advanced
fiIlering lechniques are presenled in (Vainio el aI., 1995), (VaIiviila el aI., 1997), (Vainio el aI.,
2OO3), (WaII, 2OO3) and (McCralh el aI., 2OO5). Olher nelhods use NeuraI Nelvorks for
deleclion of lhe lrue zero-crossing of lhe grid voIlage vaveforn (VaIiviila, 1998), (VaIiviila,
1999) and (Das el aI., 2OO4). An inproved accuracy in lhe inlegrily of lhe zero-crossing can
aIso le ollained ly reconslrucling a voIlage represenling lhe grid voIlage (Weidenlrug el
aI., 1993), (aker and AgeIidis, 1998), (NedeIjkovic el aI, 1998) and (NedeIjkovic el aI, 1999).
Hovever, slarling fron ils sinpIicily, vhen lhe lvo najor dravlacks are aIIevialed ly
using advanced lechniques, lhe zero-crossing nelhod proves lo le ralher conpIex and
unsuilalIe for appIicalions vhich require accurale and fasl lracking of lhe grid voIlage.

8.1.2 Arctangent method
Anolher soIulion for delecling lhe phase angIe of grid voIlage is lhe use of arc|angcn|
funclion appIied lo voIlages lransforned inlo a Carlesian coordinale syslen such as
synchronous or slalionary reference franes as shovn in Iig. 27a and Iig. 27l respecliveIy.
Power Electronics Control of Wind Energy in Distributed Power Systems 351


a)

l)
Iig. 27. Synchronizalion nelhod using (a) fiIlering on lhe dq synchronous rolaling reference
frane and (l) fiIlering on slalionary frane.

This nelhod has leen used in drives appIicalions (Kaznierkovski el aI., 2OO2), for
lransforning feedlack varialIes lo a reference frane suilalIe for conlroI purposes.
Hovever, lhis nelhod has lhe dravlack lhal requires addilionaI fiIlering in order lo ollain
an accurale deleclion of lhe phase angIe and frequency in lhe case of a dislorled grid
voIlage. Therefore, lhis lechnique is nol suilalIe for grid-connecled converler appIicalions.

8.1.3 PLL technique
Ihase-Locked Loop (ILL) is a phase lracking aIgorilhn videIy appIied in connunicalion
lechnoIogy (Cardner, 1979), leing alIe lo provide an oulpul signaI synchronized vilh ils
reference inpul in lolh frequency and phase.
Novadays, lhe ILL lechnique is lhe slale of lhe arl nelhod lo exlracl lhe phase angIe of lhe
grid voIlages (Nguyen & Srinivasan, 1984), (Kaura & Iasko, 1997), (Chung, 2OOOa) and
(Chung, 2OOOl). The ILL is inpIenenled in dq synchronous reference frane and ils
schenalic is iIIuslraled in Iig. 28. As il can le noliced, lhis slruclure needs lhe coordinale
lransfornalion forn alc lo dq and lhe Iock is reaIized ly selling lhe reference lo zero. A
conlroIIer, usuaIIy II, is used lo conlroI lhis varialIe. This slruclure can provides lolh lhe
grid frequency as veII as lhe grid voIlage angIe.

Iig. 28. asic slruclure of a ILL syslen for grid synchronizalion.

Afler lhe inlegralion of lhe grid frequency, lhe uliIily voIlage angIe is ollained, vhich is fed
lack inlo lhe Iark Transforn noduIe in order lo lransforn inlo lhe synchronous rolaling
reference frane.
Renewable Energy 352

This aIgorilhn has a leller rejeclion of grid harnonics, nolches and any olher kind of
dislurlances lul addilionaI inprovenenls have lo le done in order lo overcone grid
unlaIance (Lee el aI., 1999), (Song el aI., 1999), (Karini-Charlenani & Iravani, 2OO4),
(Rodriguez el aI., 2OO5) and (enhalil & Saadale, 2OO5),. In lhe case of unsynnelricaI
voIlage fauIls, lhe second harnonics produced ly lhe negalive sequence viII propagale
lhrough lhe ILL syslen and viII le refIecled in lhe exlracled phase angIe. In order lo
overcone lhis, differenl fiIlering lechniques are necessary such lhal lhe negalive sequence is
fiIlered oul. As a consequence, during unlaIance condilions, lhe lhree phase dq ILL
slruclure can eslinale lhe phase angIe of lhe posilive sequence of lhe grid voIlages.

8.1.4 Grid Monitoring
Crid requirenenls appIying lo uliIily connecled pover generalion unils inpose lhe
operalion condilions in respecl lo voIlage and frequency vaIues. The denands are counlry
specific. A graphicaI represenlalion of aIIoved operalion area in respecl lo lhe grid voIlage
anpIilude and grid frequency as specified in lhe Danish Crid code for vind lurlines
connecled lo lhe dislrilulion syslen (Iov & Iaaljerg, 2OO7) is iIIuslraled in Iig. 29.


Iig. 29. VoIlage and frequency operalionaI ranges for vind lurlines connecled lo lhe Danish
dislrilulion syslen.

A nornaI operalion area lelveen 95 and 1O5 of lhe noninaI grid voIlage and 1 Hz
around lhe noninaI frequency is defined. Lilher frequency or voIlage exceeds lhe
predefined Iinils, lhe vind lurline shouId disconnecl vilhin lhe specified line inlervaI.
Therefore, in order lo le alIe lo disconnecl in line, lhe vind lurline shouId acconnodale a
fasl and reIialIe grid noniloring unil.
The ILL slruclures are used in lhe grid noniloring lechniques. In a lhree-phase syslen, lhe
grid voIlage infornalion can easiIy le ollained lhrough lhe CIarke Transforn as shovn in
Iig. 3O.
Power Electronics Control of Wind Energy in Distributed Power Systems 353


Iig. 3O. CeneraI slruclure of a grid noniloring syslen lased on lhree-phase ILL.

8.2 Converter controI
Differenl conlroI slralegies can le used for lhe pover converler such as synchronous
VoIlage Orienled ConlroI (VOC) vilh II conlroIIers, slalionary VOC vilh IroporlionaI
Resonanl conlroIIers, Synchronous VirluaI IIux Orienled ConlroI (VIOC) vilh II conlroIIer,
Adaplive and Hysleresis (AH) Currenl ConlroI, Direcl Iover ConlroI (DIC) vilh Space
Veclor ModuIalion (SVM), VirluaI IIux DIC vilh SVM (Kaznierkovski el aI., 2OO2), (Iov el
aI., 2OO6), (Teodorescu el aI., 2OO6). Hovever, in induslriaI appIicalions fev of lhese conlroI
slralegies are used.
The synchronous VoIlage Orienled ConlroI vilh II conlroIIers is videIy used in grid
appIicalions. This conlroI slralegy is lased on lhe coordinale lransfornalion lelveen lhe
slalionary DE and lhe synchronous dq reference franes. Il assures fasl lransienl response
and high slalic perfornance due lo lhe inlernaI currenl conlroI Ioops (Kaznierkovski el aI.,
2OO2) and (Iov el aI., 2OO6). The deconposilion of lhe AC currenls in lvo axes provides a
decoupIed conlroI for lhe aclive and reaclive pover.
A lIock diagran of lhe VOC conlroI vilh II conlroIIers is shovn in Iig. 31


Iig. 31. Iock diagran of lhe VOC in lhe synchronous reference frane.

A Ihase Locked Loop (ILL) is used for lhe coordinale lransfornalion. The conlroI schene
conprises lhe DC-Iink voIlage conlroIIer and lhe currenl conlroIIer in lhe d-axis, vhiIe lhe
reaclive pover and lhe reaclive conponenl of lhe currenl are conlroIIed in lhe q-axis.
In order lo achieve a high accuracy currenl lracking lhe conlroI aIgorilhn accounls for lhe
oulpul fiIler induclance. Therefore, lhe oulpul of lhe currenl conlroIIers is conpensaled
vilh lhe voIlage drop on lhe oulpul fiIler. Then lhe reference voIlages are lransIaled lo lhe
slalionary reference frane and appIied lo a Space Veclor ModuIalor (SVM).
Renewable Energy 354

Il shouId le noliced lhal lhe perfornances of lhis conlroI slralegy reIies on lhe accuracy of
lhe ILL syslen for lhe voIlage grid angIe eslinalion.
Anolher conlroI slralegy used ly sone vind lurline nanufaclurers is lhe adaplive
hysleresis-land currenl conlroI lhal provides a very fasl-response currenl-Ioop (Iov el aI.,
2OO6). This conlroI slralegy is aIso lased on lhe synchronous reference frane, lherefore a
ILL is used for lhe reference frane lransfornalion of lhe currenls.

Iig. 32. Iock diagran of lhe Adaplive and Hysleresis Currenl ConlroI.

A II conlroIIer provides lhe conlroI of lhe DC-Iink voIlage in lhe d-axis vhiIe lhe reaclive
pover is conlroIIed in lhe q-axis. The currenl conlroI is perforned ly lhe hysleresis
conparalors for each phase independenlIy afler lhe lransfornalion of lhe reference dq
currenls (Iov el aI., 2OO6) and (Teodorescu el aI., 2OO6).
olh conlroI aIgorilhns require lhe eslinalion of lhe reaclive pover lased on neasured
voIlages and currenls. AIso, lolh conlroI aIgorilhns can neel lhe requirenenls for
harnonic currenl injeclion in lhe ICC (Iov el aI., 2OO6). Hovever, lhe VOC aIgorilhn is
nore sensilive lo voIlage unlaIances and asynnelries lhan lhe AH currenl conlroI due lo
lhe doulIe lransfornalion of axes.
A lypicaI conlroI schene for a cascaded H-lridge nuIliIeveI converler is presenled in Iig. 33
(Ciololaru el aI., 2OO8).

Iig. 33. ConlroI slruclure in synchronous reference frane for a seven IeveI cascaded H-
lridge nuIliIeveI converler.

The overaII slruclure of lhis conlroI is shovn in Iig. 4.6 and il is lased on IR currenl
conlroIIers. The IR conlroIIer has leen chosen due lo lhe facl lhal il gives leller
Power Electronics Control of Wind Energy in Distributed Power Systems 355

perfornances conpare lo lhe cIassicaI II. The lvo veII knovn dravlacks of lhe II
conlroIIer (sleady-slale errors and poor harnonics rejeclion capaliIily) can le easiIy
overcone ly lhe IR conlroIIer. The IR conlroIIer is alIe lo renove lhe sleady-slale error
vilhoul using voIlage feed-forvard, vhich nakes il nore reIialIe conpared vilh lhe
cIassicaI synchronous reference frane conlroI. Hovever, a lhree-phase ILL (Ihase-Locked
Loop) syslen is used lo ollain lhe necessary infornalion aloul lhe grid voIlage nagnilude
and ils angIe.
In order lo supporl lhe lidireclionaI pover fIov lhrough lhe syslen, lhe currenl reference in
d-axis is ollained lased on lhe aclive pover sel-poinl and lhe average voIlage (provided ly
ILL) and a correclion given ly lhe DC-Iink voIlage conlroI Ioop. This conlroIIer conlroIs lhe
average vaIue of lhe DC Iink voIlages. The reaclive pover is conlroIIed using a II conlroIIer
vhich provides lhe currenl reference in lhe q-axis. One of lhe dravlacks of lhis conlroI is
lhe lransfornalion of lhe conlroI varialIes fron synchronous reference frane lo lhe
slalionery one. ased on lhe grid voIlage angIe lhe currenl references in synchronous
reference frane are lransforned inlo lhe slalionary frane and lhen appIied lo lhe IR currenl
conlroIIers. Il is aIso vorlh lo nolice lhal lhis conlroI does nol require a neulraI conneclion.
Il is olviousIy lhal aII lhese conlroI slralegies need infornalion aloul lhe grid voIlage angIe
in order lo operale properIy. The nunler of lransfornalions lelveen reference franes (a|c
lo q and lack) nakes lhen nore or Iess sensilive lo changes inlo lhe grid lehaviour. Thus,
lheir capaliIily lo handIe evenls inlo lhe nelvork such as voIlage asynnelries/unlaIances,
frequency excursions and phase junps as veII as grid fauIls is very inporlanl for fuIfiIIing
lhe grid conneclion requirenenls. ollon-Iine, lhe harnonic conlenl injecled inlo lhe grid as
veII as lheir capaliIily of seIeclive harnonic eIininalion viII le a faclor key in choosing a
parlicuIar conlroI slruclure for lhe grid-side converler.

9. Wind Farm Connection
In nany counlries energy pIanning is going on vilh a high penelralion of vind energy,
vhich viII le covered ly Iarge offshore vind farns. These vind farns nay in lhe fulure
presenl a significanl pover conlrilulion lo lhe nalionaI grid, and lherefore, pIay an
inporlanl roIe on lhe pover quaIily and lhe conlroI of conpIex pover syslens.
ConsequenlIy, very high lechnicaI denands are expecled lo le nel ly lhese generalion
unils, such as lo perforn frequency and voIlage conlroI, reguIalion of aclive and reaclive
pover, quick responses under pover syslen lransienl and dynanic silualions, for exanpIe,
lo reduce lhe pover fron lhe noninaI pover lo 2O pover vilhin 2 seconds. The pover
eIeclronic lechnoIogy is again an inporlanl parl in lolh lhe syslen configuralions and lhe
conlroI of lhe offshore vind farns in order lo fuIfiI lhe fulure denands.
One off-shore vind farn equipped vilh pover eIeclronic converlers can perforn lolh
aclive and reaclive pover conlroI and aIso operale lhe vind lurlines in varialIe speed lo
naxinize lhe energy caplured and reduce lhe nechanicaI slress and acouslicaI noise. This
soIulion is shovn in Iig. 34 and il is in operalion in Dennark as a 16O MW off-shore vind
pover slalion.
Renewable Energy 356


Iig. 34. DIIC lased vind farn vilh an AC grid conneclion.

Ior Iong dislance pover lransnission fron off-shore vind farn, HVDC nay le an
inleresling oplion. In an HVDC lransnission syslen, lhe Iov or nediun AC voIlage al lhe
vind farn is converled inlo a high dc voIlage on lhe lransnission side and lhe dc pover is
lransferred lo lhe on-shore syslen vhere lhe DC voIlage is converled lack inlo AC voIlage
as shovn in Iig. 28.

Iig. 35. HVDC syslen lased on voIlage source converlers for vind farn conneclion.

This conneclion lype is considered for orkun vind farn in lhe aIlic Sea and il viII le
connissioned in 2OO9.
Anolher possilIe DC lransnission syslen configuralion is shovn in Iig. 36, vhere each
vind lurline has ils ovn pover eIeclronic converler, so il is possilIe lo operale each vind
lurline al an individuaI oplinaI speed. A connon DC grid is presenl on lhe vind farn
vhiIe a pover converler lerninaI reaIizes lhe on-shore grid conneclion. In lhis case any of
lhe vind lurline configuralions lased on fuII-raling pover converler can le used.

Iig. 36. Wind farn vilh connon DC grid lased on varialIe speed vind lurlines vilh fuII
raling pover converler.

This lopoIogy can le exlended ly adding lhe inpul of nore vind farns in lhe DC grid and
lhen nuIlipIe DC calIes and converlers for conneclion lo olher AC pover grids. In lhis case
a nuIli-lerninaI DC conneclion viII resuIl.
As il can le seen lhe vind farns have inleresling fealures in order lo acl as a pover source
lo lhe grid. Sone have leller aliIilies lhan olhers. ollon-Iine viII aIvays le a lolaI cosl
Power Electronics Control of Wind Energy in Distributed Power Systems 357

scenario incIuding produclion, inveslnenl, nainlenance and reIialiIily. This nay le
differenl depending on lhe pIanned sile.

10. DeveIopments and trends in wind energy systems
Wind lurlines size vas in a conlinuous grovlh in lhe Iasl 25 years as shovn in Iig. 37 and
loday prololype lurlines of 5-6 MW are seen around lhe vorId leing lesled.


Iig. 37. DeveIopnenl of vind lurlines during lhe Iasl 25 years.

CurrenlIy, dispersed singIe vind lurlines are repIaced vilh MW-size vind lurlines
concenlraled in vind pover pIanls. AIso, lhe grid penelralion of vind pover is increasing
dranalicaIIy especiaIIy in lhe Luropean counlries Iike Dennark, Cernany and Spain. Il is
expecled lhal nore counlries vorIdvide viII foIIov lhis lrend. Due lo lhe unprediclalIe
nalure of lhe vind, lhe grid conneclion of lhese nodern MW-size vind lurlines and vind
pover pIanls has a Iarge inpacl on grid slaliIily and securily of suppIy. Thus, in order lo
acconnodale nore vind pover inlo lhe grid, one of lhe najor chaIIenges in lhe fulure is
direcled lovards lhe inlegralion of vind pover vilhin lhe exisling eIeclricaI nelvork.
Today, lhe grid conneclion requirenenls, in counlries vilh a reIaliveIy high penelralion of
vind pover, require MW-size vind lurlines and vind farns lo supporl lhe grid acliveIy
and lo renain connecled during grid evenls. These requirenenls are nainIy fuIfiIIed ly
using pover eIeclronics vilhin lhe vind lurlines and vind farns. The pover eIeclronics
nake aIso possilIe lhe varialIe speed operalion of vind lurlines and furlher inprove lhe
perfornances of lhe vind lurlines ly reducing lhe nechanicaI slress and acouslicaI noise,
and ly increasing lhe vind pover caplure. AIso, lhe pover eIeclronics increase lhe
conlroIIaliIily of lhe vind lurlines, vhich is a najor concern for lheir grid inlegralion. AII
lhese fealures are provided al Iov price share of pover eIeclronics conpared lo olher
conponenls fron a nodern MW-size vind lurline as shovn in Iig. 38.
Renewable Energy 358


Iig. 38. Cosl share of nain conponenls in a lypicaI 2 MW varialIe speed vind lurline
|ernslein Research, 2OO7j.

CurrenlIy, lhe varialIe speed vind lurlines doninale lhe narkel. The doulIy-fed induclion
generalor lased vind lurline has deveIoped inlo a seni-induslry slandard for gear-driven
vind lurlines. On lhe olher hand, nore nanufaclurers are coning vilh vind lurline
prololypes lased on lhe fuII-raling pover converler using differenl generalor lypes. The
nain advanlage of lhe doulIy-fed vind lurline of using a parliaI scaIe pover converler
nay le overcane ly ils lehaviour during grid evenls. Moreover, lhe grid supporl during
fauIls ly neans of 1OO reaclive currenl injeclion inlo lhe grid required ly sone grid
operalors cannol le provided ly lhis concepl. On lhe conlrary, lhe fuII-raling pover
converlers lased vind lurlines are very allraclive lecause lhey can provide conpIele grid
supporl during nelvork evenls. Thus, furlher deveIopnenls of lolh vind lurline concepls
are expecled, focusing on nore oplinised lurlines and, lhus, lovards nore cosl-effeclive
nachines.
Moving lo Iarge vind pover pIanls inslaIIalions lhese vind lurline concepls nay le
nodified for a leller inlegralion inlo lhe eIeclricaI grid. The HVDC soIulion for connecling
vind farns nighl creale a nev cIass of vind lurlines lhal viII deIiver onIy DC pover inlo a
connon DC-grid. Thus, lhe presenl Iayoul of a fuII-raling pover converler lased vind
lurline can le sinpIified ly renoving sone of lhe conversion slages, e.g. DC lo AC
incIuding lhe slep-up lransforner. The receiving-end slalion of such a syslen viII le
responsilIe vilh fuIfiIIing lhe grid conneclion requirenenls, vhiIe lhe vind lurline ilseIf
viII jusl naxinize lhe vind pover conversion.
The fulure is difficuIl lo predicl. TechnoIogicaIIy, inprovenenls of lhe currenl designs are
expecled. Concepls lorroved fron olher fieIds or olher appIicalions nighl change lhe
fulure design of lhe vind lurlines. LcononicaIIy, lhe cheapesl and lhe nosl reIialIe
soIulion viII le preferred. Looking al lhe vind pover pIanls lhe overaII cosls againsl
perfornances viII definileIy le lhe nain driver. Thus, in order lo nininize de cosls al high
conlroI capaliIilies required ly lhe syslen operalors, an inlegraled design of vind pover
pIanls viII le required. Hovever, pover eIeclronics incIuding conlroI viII le lhe key
lechnoIogy for lhe Iarge scaIe grid inlegralion of vind pover.

Power Electronics Control of Wind Energy in Distributed Power Systems 359

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