Effects of Acid Rain

Acid rain causes acidification of lakes and streams and contributes to the damage of trees at high elevations (for example, red spruce trees above 2,000 feet) and many sensitive forest soils. In addition, acid rain accelerates the decay of building materials and paints, including irreplaceable buildings, statues, and sculptures that are part of our nation's cultural heritage. Prior to falling to the earth, sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) gases and their particulate matter derivativessulfates and nitratescontribute to visibility degradation and harm public health.

What is Acid Rain?

"Acid rain" is a broad term referring to a mixture of wet and dry deposition (deposited material) from the atmosphere containing higher than normal amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. The precursors, or chemical forerunners, of acid rain formation result from both natural sources, such as volcanoes and decaying vegetation, and man-made sources, primarily emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) resulting from fossil fuel combustion. In the United States, roughly 2/3 of all SO2 and 1/4 of all NOx come from electric power generation that relies on burning fossil fuels, like coal. Acid rain occurs when these gases react in the atmosphere with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form various acidic compounds. The result is a mild solution of sulfuric acid and nitric acid. When sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released from power plants and other sources, prevailing winds blow these compounds across state and national borders, sometimes over hundreds of miles.

Group Period 1

1
1

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18
2

He

1.008

4.0026

10

Li
6.94

Be
9.0122

B
10.81

C
12.011

N
14.007

O
15.999

F
18.998

Ne
20.180

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

Na
22.990

Mg
24.305

Al
26.982

Si
28.085

P
30.974

S
32.06

Cl
35.45

Ar
39.948

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

K
39.098

Ca
40.078

Sc
44.956

Ti
47.867

V
50.942

Cr
51.996

Mn
54.938

Fe
55.845

Co
58.933

Ni
58.693

Cu
63.546

Zn
65.38

Ga
69.723

Ge
72.63

As
74.922

Se
78.96

Br
79.904

Kr
83.798

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

Rb
85.468

Sr
87.62

Y
88.906

Zr
91.224

Nb
92.906

Mo
95.96

Tc
[97.91]

Ru
101.07

Rh
102.91

Pd
106.42

Ag
107.87

Cd
112.41

In
114.82

Sn
118.71

Sb
121.76

Te
127.60

I
126.90

Xe
131.29

55

56

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

Cs
132.91

Ba
137.33

Lu
174.97

Hf
178.49

Ta
180.95

W
183.84

Re
186.21

Os
190.23

Ir
192.22

Pt
195.08

Au
196.97

Hg
200.59

Tl
204.38

Pb
207.2

Bi
208.98

Po
[208.98]

At
[209.99]

Rn
[222.02]

87

88

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

110

111

112

113

114

115

116

117

118

Fr

Ra **

Lr

Rf

Db

Sg

Bh
[270]

Hs
[277.15]

Mt
[276.15]

Ds
[281.16]

Rg
[280.16]

Cn
[285.17]

Uut
[284.18]

Fl
[289.19]

Uup
[288.19]

Lv
[293]

Uus
[294]

Uuo
[294]

[223.02] [226.03]

[262.11] [265.12] [268.13] [271.13]

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

*Lanthanoids

La
138.91

Ce
140.12

Pr
140.91

Nd
144.24

Pm
[144.91]

Sm
150.36

Eu
151.96

Gd
157.25

Tb
158.93

Dy
162.50

Ho
164.93

Er
167.26

Tm
168.93

Yb
173.05

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

100

101

102

**Actinoids

**

Ac
[227.03]

Th
232.04

Pa
231.04

U
238.03

Np
[237.05]

Pu
[244.06]

Am
[243.06]

Cm
[247.07]

Bk
[247.07]

Cf
[251.08]

Es
[252.08]

Fm
[257.10]

Md
[258.10]

No
[259.10]

The periodic table is a table of the chemical elements in which the elements are arranged by order of atomic number in such a way that the periodic properties (chemical periodicity) of the elements are made clear. The standard form of the table includes periods (usually horizontal in the periodic table) and groups (usually vertical). Elements in groups have some similar properties to each other.

There is no one single or best structure for the periodic table but by whatever consensus there is, the form used here is very useful. The periodic table is a masterpiece of organised chemical information. The evolution of chemistry's periodic table into the current form is an astonishing achievement with major contributions from many famous chemists and other eminent scientists.

Simple compounds: Frequently asked questions

Classifying compounds
Can a compound be classified as ionic or molecular from its formula alone? What properties distinguish ionic compounds from covalent compounds? What is a binary compound? What is a compound?

Hydrates and addition compounds

How can I find the formulas for common hydrates of an ionic compound? Why do some compounds absorb water from air?

Molecules
What holds atoms together in molecules? How can I estimate the volume of a molecule?

Names and formulas

Which member of a family of oxanions takes the -ate ending? Where can I look up the formula for a compound, given its name? Where can I find the structure of a compound from its name or formula? Why is the anion suffix -ide used to name molecular compounds? Where can I find the name for a specific compound, given only its molecular formula? What do you call a compound that contains a metal and an acid anion? Can you predict the formulas for binary covalent compounds?

Polyatomic ions
What is a carbonate, and what is it used for? What is thiosulfate ion, and what is it used for?

Properties of compounds
Where do I find compound properties on the Web?

NOMENCLATURE: NAMING OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS

Before we can begin to make progress in chemistry, we must master its vocabulary. While there are many thousands of different chemical compounds, there is a very definite system of nomenclature whereby we can name most compounds simply and easily. We can divide the compounds into two main types: 1. Those which are true binary compounds (that is, contain only two types of elements). 2. Those which contain more than two types of elements. I. NAMING OF BINARY COMPOUNDS The names of all compounds containing only two elements end in IDE. Binary compounds may be subdivided into two types:

1. Those whose first element is a metal 2. Those whose first element is a non-metal In both cases the second element is a non-metal. 1. For binary compounds whose first element is a metal, we use the following system: [name of first element (metal)] [stem] + [IDE] The stem is merely an abbreviation for the name of the second element (the non-metal). Example: Naming the compound NaCl The symbol Na represents the metallic element sodium. The symbol Cl represents the non-metallic element chlorine, whose stem is chlor. Therefore, the name NaCl is sodium chlor+ide or sodium chloride. Likewise, for the following compounds: CaO is calcium oxide CaC2 is calcium carbide AlN is aluminum nitride K2S is potassium sulfide HCl is hydrogen chloride

Note that hydrogen is considered as a metal when it is written first in a binary compound. The stems of the most commonly used elements are indicated in the following table: Oxygen ox Nitrogen nitr Chlorine chlor Phosphorus phosph Carbon carb Fluoride fluor Iodine iod Bromine brom Hydrogen hydr Sulfur sulf There are a few special cases in this system of naming. The ammonium cation NH4+ is considered as a simple metallic ion, therefore: NH4Cl is ammonium chloride (NH4)2S is ammonium sulfide

There are also two anions which are considered to be special cases. The hydroxide (OH-) and the cyanide (CN-) are considered as simple negative ions, therefore: KCN is potassium cyanide Mg(OH)2 is magnesium hydroxide

NH4CN is ammonium cyanide If the metallic ion exists in two valence states:
o o

The charge is designated by Roman numerals, or The one with the lower charge has the ending OUS

The one with the higher charge has the ending IC. For example: Fe+2 is iron (II) or ferrous ion Fe+3 is iron (III) or ferric ion Cu+1 is copper (I) or cuprous ion Cu+2 is copper (II) or cupric ion Hg2+2 is mercury (I) or mercurous ion Hg+2 is mercury (II) or mercuric ion Sn+2 is tin (II) or stannous ion Sn+4 is tin (IV) or stannic ion Pb+2 is lead (II) or plumbous ion Pb+4 is lead (IV) or plumbic ion

These rules apply in the same manner to compounds. For example: FeCl2 is iron (II) chloride or ferrous chloride CuS is copper (II) sulfide or cupric sulfide Cu2O is copper (I) oxide or cuprous oxide HgO is mercury (II) oxide or mercuric oxide SnO2 is tin (IV) oxide or stannic oxide Hg2Cl2 is mercury (I) chloride or mercurous chloride 2. For binary compounds whose first element is a non-metal, we use the following system: [name of first element (non-metal)] [prefix] + [stem] + [IDE] The stem is the abbreviation for the second element. In addition to the ending, a prefix is used. The prefix designates how many atoms of the second element are present as follows: mono = 1 di = 2 tri = 3 tetra = 4 penta = 5

hexa = 6 hepta = 7 Example: Naming the compound CO2 The symbol C represents the element carbon. The symbol O represents the element oxygen whose stem is ox. There are 2 atoms of the second element present, so the prefix is di. The ending, as with all binary compounds is ide. Therefore, the name CO2 is: [name of first element] [prefix] + [stem] + [ide] carbon di ox ide = carbon dioxide Likewise, for the following compounds: SO2 is sulfur dioxide SO3 is sulfur trioxide CO is carbon monoxide CCl4 is carbon tretrachloride Cl2O7 is dichlorine heptoxide

P2O3 is diphosphorus trioxide P2O5 is diphosphorus pentoxide II. NAMING OF ACIDS DERIVED FROM BINARY COMPOUNDS For binary compounds with hydrogen as the first element: Place the term hydro at the front of the stem of the second element The letters IC at the end of the stem Add the word ACID. Therefore: HCl (hydrogen chloride) is hydrochloric acid H2S (hydrogen sulfide) is hydrosulfuric acid HF (hydrogen fluoride) is hydrofluoric acid HCN (hydrogen cyanide) is hydrocyanic acid (Remember: cyanide ion is a special case) III. NAMING OF ACIDS WHOSE NEGATIVE GROUP CONTAINS OXYGEN

The only ones which we are concerned with are the common acids of phosphorus, sulfur, nitrogen, chlorine, and carbon. Learn the common oxyacids, which are: H2SO4 H3PO4 HNO3

sulfuric acid phosphoric acid nitric acid HClO3 H2CO3 chloric acid carbonic acid

If the acid contains one less oxygen atom than the common one, the ending on the stem is changed from IC to OUS. Examples: H2SO3 H3PO3 HNO2 HClO2 sulfurous acid phosphorous acid nitrous acid chlorous acid

If the acid contains two less oxygen atoms than the common one, the ending in the stem is changed from IC to OUS and the prefix HYPO is added. Example:

HClO hypochlorous acid

If the acid contains one more oxygen atom than the common one, the prefix PER is added to the name of the common acid. Example:

HClO4 perchloric acid

Summary Chart Naming of Acids Whose Negative Group Contains Oxygen

TWO LESS OXYGEN ATOMS HClO hypochlorous acid ONE LESS OXYGEN ATOM HClO2 chlorous acid H2SO3 sulfurous acid H3PO3 phosphorous acid HNO2 nitrous acid

COMMON ACIDS HClO3 chloric acid H2SO4 sulfuric acid H3PO4 phosphoric acid HNO3 nitric acid

ONE MORE OXYGEN ATOM

HClO4 perchloric acid

IV. NAMING OF SALTS CORRESPONDING TO THE OXY-ACIDS For salts derived from the most common acids (the IC acids):
o o

Change the ending IC on the stem to ATE Include the positive ion Examples: Na2SO4 [derived from H2SO4 (sulfuric acid)] is sodium sulfate. KNO3 [derived from HNO3 (nitric acid)] is potassium nitrate. (NH4)3PO4 [derived from H3PO4 (phosphoric acid)] is ammonium phosphate. Ca(ClO3)2 [derived from HClO3 (chloric acid)] is calcium chlorate. For salts derived from the OUS acids:

o o

Change the OUS ending on the stem to ITE Include the positive ion Examples:

K2SO3 [derived from H2SO3 (sulfurous acid)] is potassium sulfite. Al(NO2)3 [derived from HNO2 (nitrous acid)] is aluminum nitrite. KClO2 [derived from HClO2 (chlorous acid] is potassium chlorite. For salts derived from the hypo____ous acids:
o o

Change the OUS ending on the stem to ITE Include the positive ion prefixed by HYPO

Example: KClO [derived from HClO (hypochlorous acid)] is potassium hypochlorite. For salts derived from the per____ic acids:
o o

Change the IC ending on the stem to ATE Include the positive ion

Example: KClO4 [derived from HClO4 (perchloric acid)] is potassium perchlorate.

V. NAMING OF SALTS CONTAINING MORE THAN ONE POSITIVE ION 1. For salts containing two positive ions, one of which is hydrogen, use the following system:
o o o

Give the name of the positive ion other than hydrogen. Use the prefix bi to indicate the hydrogen ion OR name the hydrogen. Give the proper name for the negative ion using the above rules.

Examples: NaHSO4 is sodium bisulfate or sodium hydrogen sulfate Ca(HSO4)2 is calcium bisulfate or calcium hydrogen sulfate LiHSO3 is lithium bisulfite or lithium hydrogen sulfite NaHCO3 is sodium bicarbonate or sodium hydrogen carbonate Mg(HCO3)2 is magnesium bicarbonate or magnesium hydrogen carbonate 2. Phosphate salts containing more than one type of positive ion, one of which is hydrogen, use the following system:
o o o

Give the name of the first positive ion. Give the name of the second positive ion, using the prefix mono or di to indicate how many atoms of it are present. Give the proper name for the negative ion Examples: NaH2PO4 is sodium dihydrogen phosphate

K2HPO4 is potassium monohydrogen phosphate

The more advanced student will find that there are other systems for naming these compounds, but this will be enough at the present time. ASSIGNMENT -- Name the following compounds: 1. ZnS _______________________________ 26. CuCl2 _____________________________ 2. MgCl2 _____________________________ 27. PCl5 _____________________________ 3. Ca(ClO3)2__________________________ 28. LiNO2 _____________________________ 4. CaSO4 _____________________________ 29. KH2PO4 _____________________________ 5. AgNO3 ____________________________ 30. CuCN _____________________________ 6. H2S _______________________________ 31. KHCO3 _____________________________ 7. CaO _______________________________ 32. NaHSO3 _____________________________ 8. H2CO3 _____________________________ 33. Li2HPO4 _____________________________ 9. Mg3(PO4)2 __________________________ 34. H3PO3 _____________________________ 10. KCl _______________________________ 35. MgSO4 _____________________________ 11. K2O _______________________________ 36. Ca(IO2)2 _____________________________

12. Al(NO2)3 ____________________________ 37. SiO2 _____________________________ 13. MgO _______________________________ 38. CuCl _____________________________ 14. SnI2 _______________________________ 39. KClO2 _____________________________ 15. AsCl5 ______________________________ 40. CaSO3 _____________________________ 16. CuSO3 _____________________________ 41. NaBr _____________________________ 17. HF ________________________________ 42. P2O3 _____________________________ 18. FeSO4 ______________________________43. HClO _____________________________ 19. SnCl4 _______________________________44. NO2 _____________________________ 20. AsCl3 _____________________________ 45. NaH _____________________________ 21. KCN ______________________________46. ZnS _____________________________ 22. NH4OH ____________________________47. Pb(NO3)2 _____________________________ 23. Fe(ClO4)3 ___________________________48. H2Se _____________________________ 24. HNO2 ______________________________ 49. H3PO4 _____________________________ 25. CS2 ________________________________ 50. CaH2 _____________________________ ASSIGNMENT -- Write the formulas for the following compounds: 51. lithium chloride ________________ 76. strontium carbonate ________________

52. phosphoric acid ________________ 53. boron trichloride ________________ 54. ferric chloride ________________

77. calcium nitrate ________________ 78. disulfur dichloride ________________ 79. tin (IV) oxide ________________

55. carbon tetrachloride _______________ 80. sodium bicarbonate ________________ 56. silver sulfide ________________ 81. strontium chlorate ________________

57. antimony trichloride _______________ 82. aluminum hydroxide ________________ 58. barium carbonate ________________ 83. cadium nitrate ________________ 59. iodine monochloride ______________ 84. diphosphorus trioxide ________________ 60. aluminum nitride ________________ 85. sodium hydride ________________ 61. lead sulfate ____________________ 86. calcium nitride ________________ 62. ammonium chloride _______________ 87. sulfur trioxide ________________ 63. hydrogen fluoride ________________ 88. aluminum nitrate ________________ 64. hydrobromic acid ________________ 89. silver oxide ________________ 65. tin (II) bromide _________________ 90. ammonium phosphate ________________ 66. cuprous oxide __________________ 91. cupric sulfate ________________ 67. calcium bicarbonate ______________ 92. lithium fluoride ________________

68. copper (II) cyanide _______________ 93. sodium sulfate ________________ 69. cesium fluoride __________________ 94. radium carbonate ________________ 70. zinc phosphate __________________ 95. copper (II) oxide ________________ 71. dinitrogen pentoxide ______________ 96. iron (III) sulfate ________________ 72. iron (II) sulfate ___________________ 97. magnesium perchlorate _______________ 73. bromous acid ____________________ 98. potassium hypochlorite ________________ 74. perchloric acid ___________________ 99. lithium hydride ________________ 75. potassium cyanide ________________ 100.hydrosulfuric acid ________________

Mixture Basics
Mixtures are absolutely everywhere you look. Mixtures are the form for most things in nature. Rocks, air, or the ocean, they are just about anything you find. They are substances held together by physical forces, not chemical. That statement means the individual molecules enjoy being near each other, but their fundamental chemical structure does not change when they enter the mixture. When you see distilled water, it's a pure substance. That fact means that there are just water molecules in the liquid. A mixture would be a glass of water with other things dissolved inside, maybe salt. Each of the substances in that glass of water keeps the original chemical properties. So, if you have some dissolved substances, you can boil off the water and still

have those dissolved substances left over. Because it takes very high temperatures to boil salt, the salt is left in the container.

Mixtures are Everywhere

There are an infinite number of mixtures. Anything you can combine is a mixture. Think of everything you eat. Just think about how many cakes there are. Each of those cakes is made up of a different mixture of ingredients. Even the wood in your pencil is considered a chemical mixture. There is the basic cellulose of the wood, but there are also thousands of other compounds in that pencil. Solutions are also mixtures. If you put sand into a glass of water, it is considered to be a mixture. You can always tell a mixture because each of the substances can be separated from the group in different physical ways. You can always get the sand out of the water by filtering the water away. A solution can also be made of two liquids. Even something as simple as bleach and water is a solution. QUESTION 1: Mixtures are always combinations of the same compounds that are at different states. QUESTION 2: You can separate all mixtures by filtration. QUESTION 3: Would it be possible to have a mixture made of all carbon atoms and compounds with only carbon atoms? QUESTION 4: All mixtures are defined as "heterogeneous." QUESTION 5: Mixtures are generally separated by what methods?

QUESTION 6: Only specific compounds can be combined to form mixtures. QUESTION 7: All solutions are mixtures, but not all mixtures are solutions. QUESTION 8: As the temperature of a mixture increases, one part of the mixture may melt while the other parts remain solid.

What are Mixtures and Solutions?

A MIXTURE is a combination of two or more substances that are not chemically united and do not exist in fixed proportions to each other. Most natural substances are mixtures. MIXTURES PURE COMPOUNDS A mixture can be physically separated into pure compounds or A pure compound has a constant composition with fixed ratios of elements. elements. Just about everything that you can think of is probably a mixture. Although it is almost physically impossible to isolate absolutely Even the purest of materials still contain other compounds as pure substances, a substance is said to be pure if no impurities can impurities. be detected using the best available analytical techniques. Mixtures may exhibit a changing set of physical properties. Physical properties such as boiling point or melting point of pure substances are invariant. For example, mixture of alcohol and water boils over a range of temperatures. For example, pure water boils at 100 degrees C HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURES The prefixes "homo"- indicate sameness A homogeneous mixture has the same uniform appearance and composition throughout. Many homongeneous mixtures are commonly referred to as solutions. HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURES The prefixes: "hetero"- indicate difference. A heterogeneous mixture consists of visibly different substances or phases. The three phases or states of matter are gas, liquid, and solid.

Particle size distinguishes homogeneous solutions from other heterogeneous mixtures. Solutions have particles which are the size of atoms or molecules - too small to be seen. A COLLOID is a homogeneous solution with intermediate particle size between a solution and a suspension. Colloid particles may be seen in a beam of light such as dust in air in a "shaft" of sunlight. Milk, fog, and ello are examples of colloids.

In contrast a SUSPENSION is a heterogeneous mixture of larger particles. These particles are visible and will settle out on standing. Examples of suspensions are: fine sand or silt in water or tomato juice.

For example beach sand is heterogeneous since you can see Corn oil is homogeneous, White vinegar is homogeneous. A sugar different colored particles. Vinegar and oil salad dressing is solution is homogeneous since only a colorless liquid is observed. heterogeneous since two liquid layers are present, as well as Air with no clouds is homogeneous. solids. Air with clouds is heterogenous, as the clouds contain tiny droplets of liquuid water. SOLUTIONS are homogeneous mixtures. A solution is a mixture of two or more substances in a single phase. At least two substances must be mixed in order to have a solution. The substance in the smallest amount and the one that dissolves or disperses is called the SOLUTE. The substance in the larger amount is called the SOLVENT. In most common instances water is the solvent. The gases, liquids, or solids dissolved in water are the solutes. Since solutions are mixtures, their compositions may vary over a very wide range. The concentrations may be expressed using a variety of measures. The non-specific terms concentrated and dilute are sometimes used. A concentrated solution has a relatively large (but non-specific) amount of solute dissolved in a solvent. A dilute solution has a smaller quantity of solute dissolved.

TYPES OF SOLUTIONS Concentrations Solute Less than 50% liquid solid gas gas gas liquid solid liquid solid Solvent More than 50% liquid liquid liquid gas solid gas gas solid solid alcohol - water salt - water oxygen - water air = oxygen - nitrogen hydrogen - platinum water in air smog mercury - another metal alloy Examples wine beer, vodka acetic acid / water - vinegar saline (NaCl) solution sugar solution CaCO3 - hard water CO2 - carbonated water NH3 - ammonia solution