Ultrasonics Introduction Ultrasonics is the term used to describe those sound waves whose frequency is above the audible

range of human ear upward from approximately 20kHz to several MHz. The ultrasonics in this experiment is generated by a transducer made of piezoelectric crystal. The crystal is set into oscillation by the oscillatory electric field produced by the electronic oscillator. The Phywe generator used in this experiment has two modes of operation: continuous wave (CW) at around 800kHz and repetitive pulses.

Experimental Setup The equipment setup is shown schematically below. Note that the transducer should be immersed in water at all times to prevent it from being overheated.

Error Analysis The first experiment is suitable to demonstrate the normal distribution of data, and to refresh your knowledge of error analysis. See appendix below for Standard deviation and Standard error of the mean. While the analysis can be easily calculated by a handheld calculator, you are required to explain the concept as well as the mathematics of standard deviation, and to calculate the propagation of errors.

Experiment 1

Velocity Measurement

The frequency f, wavelength , and velocity v of a sound beam, are related by v = f . From this relationship, knowing the frequency and wavelength the velocity of sound in water can be deduced.

The ultrasonic frequency of the oscillator (in CW) driving the transducer can be determined by an oscilloscope, or better still by a frequency meter. The wavelength is determined by the lines of stationary bubbles (cavitations at the pressure minima) formed in the water. In order that the bubbles are stationary, the standing wave condition must be first established. For best result adjust the aluminium reflector for a strong standing wave, which is indirectly visible as parallel lines of fine bubbles perpendicular to the direction of the ultrasonic beam. Typically the aluminium reflector is position at a distance of less than 15 cm from the transducer.

The separation between the bubbles is 1 2 . A travelling microscope with digital readout is used for measuring the separation. To facilitate better viewing of the bubbles a table lamp should be used to illuminate the bubbles.

1.

Take at least 25 readings at different parts along the ultrasonic beam. Plot the distribution to verify that you have enough statistics for a normal distribution. Find the standard deviation by: (a) hand-held calculator, and (b) from your normal distribution graph. Verify that they agree according to error analysis theory . Work out the mathematics for error propagation. Estimate the standard deviation and standard error of the mean of the velocity. What is the sample size needed to have a 95% confidence level? It is well know that the velocity of sound is basically determined by the modulus of elasticity, K, of water. The expression can easily be found with the aid of Newton's second law as:

2.

3.

v = K /
where is the density of water and for our purpose may be taken as 1g/cm3 Calculate the standard deviation of your K value. 4. Explain why a standing wave is a necessary condition in this experiment, and the steps you have taken to ensure that the condition is met.

Experiment 2

SONAR

Use the pulse mode of the ultrasonic generator for a demonstration of distance measurement with SONAR (Sound, Navigation and Ranging). Place the aluminium reflector at various distances from the transducer. Align the receiving sensor so that it is facing the incoming reflected pulses. The sensor should be rigidly clamped and pick-up signal, which is weak, sent to the oscilloscope set at high gain input. The ultrasonic generator also gives a reference pulse as marker of time frame. Connect the reference pulse to the other channel of the oscilloscope. For a stable display without jitters, adjust the triggering level to bring the ultrasonic oscillator sweeping rate and the scope into synchronisation. 1. Use a digital camera to take the traces of original and reflected (echoes) pulses for a number of different distances. Using the oscilloscope, measure accurately the time separation between the original pulse and the reflected echoes, hence deduce the distance travelled. Confirm your results by comparing them with a ruler measurement, taking care to allow for a slightly skew path of the pulses. Plot a graph of the ultrasonic measurement versus ruler measurement. Discuss the accuracy of your measurement.

2.

3.

4.

Give the reason(s) that SONAR is employed in underwater by submarines and fishing boats rather than the highly accurate electromagnetic waves.

Figure 1

Original and reflected (echoes) pulses for 0.3m reflection

Figure 2

Original and reflected (echoes) pulses for 0.2m reflection

Appendix

Appendix - Standard Error of the Mean When trying to work out the mean of a sample, we may have to answer one of two questions: If there is no control over the size of the sample, what is the confidence of the mean. If the size of the sample can be controlled, how big a sample should be taken to ensure that the confidence interval is within the required limits.

The solution is based on the standard error of the mean. The distribution of sample means is normally distributed, regardless of the distribution of the population from which the sample was drawn. The standard error of the mean is the standard deviation of the sample mean. The formula is:

It follows from this equation, that the larger the sample size, the smaller the likely error. This is one of those cases where statistics tells you something that is intuitively obvious. In practice we don't always know the standard deviation of the population (or a value calculated from a very large sample), so we may have to estimate the value from the sample. The confidence limits of the sample mean are:

Example - Confidence Interval for the Mean. The standard deviation of the weight of individual chilies from this years crop was 2.0 grams. The average weight of a sample of 16 chilies was 10 grams. Thus the standard error of the mean is: StErr = 2/16 = 0.5 Therefore the 95% confidence interval for the mean is: Confidence interval = 10 1.96 * 0.5 = 10 0.98 = 9.02 to 10.98 Sample Size The formula for the standard error can be re-arranged to estimate the required sample size:

Thus if we know the confidence level and the interval size, we can work out the standard error to plug into the equation:

Example - Sample Size Back to our crop of chilies, say, we need to be 95% certain that our estimate of the mean has an error of plus or minus 0.50 grams, how big should the sample be. Step 1 - Calculate the standard error StErr = interval/1.96 = 0.5/1.96 = 0.26 Step 2 - Work out the sample size n = (StDev/StErr)2 = (2.00/0.26)2 = 7.692 = 59.1 In practice, we would take the next integer value which is greater then 59.1, i.e. 60 as the required sample size.