Unit I Constitutional Underpinnings of United States Government 5-15% of multiplechoice The Constitution Chapter 2: The Constitution - Natural rights

hts founding fathers wanted more representation in the government, also the main point was to protect the rights of the people. The Government that Failed: 1776-1787 Shays Rebellion was a large part, because it gave a greater reason to enhance the power of the national govt. AOC had weak national govt, weak national govt because states could not work together. Need to maintain order - Ratifying the Constitution The Madisonian model, called for separation of powers. Thwart tyranny of majority, Govt is a democratic Republic, Created checks and balances system. People did not want this anti Federalist but the federalist did. Chapter 4: Civil Liberties and Public Policy - The Bill of Rights Then and Now Bill of rights is the first 10 amendments. Restrained nat govt only at first but now applies to the states. (Incorporation Doctorine) Throguh a series of court cases. This was a way to get the anti federalist to ratify the constitution so they would know they have their protection.

- Freedom of Religion Establishment clause- congress cannot respect a religion. Free exercise clauseGuarantees right of religion. All part of the first amendment. - Freedom of Expression In the bill of rights and gives the right to express their ides freely. Prior restraint is protected in this freedom.(Limiting the press) Obscenity is not protected. Symbolic speech like burning a flag is constitutional. - Defendants RightsDefendants rights is the right of the person being accused of a crime.(rights= Self Incrimination,Illegal searches and seizures,right to counsel,trial by jury, right to privacy, cruel and unusual punishments.)

- Trial by Jury The Constitutional right of the defendant to be tried by the jury. - The Right to Privacy The right for government not to be able to invade the private property and life of citizens. - Freedom of Expression Americans can believe what they want and express what they want but the right controlled by the morals of the society.

A common issue is prior restraint which is preventing material from being published was ruled unconstitutional.. - The Right to Privacy- Right to privacy is protected by the first amendment but some debatable like issues like abortion are restricted.

Federalism Chapter 3: Federalism - Defining Federalism BASICALLY FEDERALISM DECENTRALIZES THE GOVERNMENT. THATS ALL YOU NEED TO KNOW. Separation of powers, Nat,> <State,>< Local govts. Decentralizes politics and policies Supremacy clause the Nat govt can do anything to follow the constitution. and decentralization means that the govt are like mashed up and connected. Separation of Powers Chapter 2: The Constitution - The Madisonian Model Separation of powers to prevent tyranny of the majority. Take direct power away from the majority so the wealthier majority cannot claim direct power in all institutions. Basically prevent the majority from taking over the minority Chapter 13: The Presidency - Presidential Leadership of Congress: The Politics of Shared Powers- The president is known as the chief legislator. He or she uses the veto, the pocket veto, party leadership, and public approval to convince Congress to follow his or her agenda. - Presidential Leadership of Congress: President has to rally members of congress The Politics of Shared Powers All the powers of are shared so the president has powers in all of the branches of the government. The president is termed the chief legislator because of the importance he has on the legislative process. Theories of Democratic Chapter 1: Introducing Government in America Government - Democracy- Democracy is a way of selecting policymakers so that policy reflects citizens preferences. The four main theories of democracy are: traditional democratic theory, hyperpluralism, pluralism, and elite theory. This is the concept that the citizens are free, they are not ruled by the government but are able to make their own decisions. Also a democracy the citizens can vote freely. Chapter 3: Federalism - Defining Federalism- the division of power between branches and levels of government. Unit II Political Beliefs and Behaviors Citizens Political Beliefs Chapter 6: Public Opinion and Political Action

 Measuring Public Opinion and Political Information Polls rely on a sample of the population. Random sampling, which operates on the principle that everyone should have an equal probability of being selected. Americans are not very well informed about politics and cannot explain their opinion on important issues. Increased levels of education have not raised public knowledge about politics. Over the last forty years Americans have become increasingly dissatisfied with government. Polls must be random, fair, and representative. Americans are not well informed about politics and they have little trust in government, mostly because of the Watergate scandal and the Vietnam War. What Americans Value: Political Ideologies major ideological shifts in the American population in recent years away from labels such as Democratic and Republican. Political ideology is a coherent set of values and beliefs about public policy. More Americans consistently choose the ideological label of conservative over liberal. Liberals generally like the government to do more. Democrats are more liberal and Republicans are more conservative. Liberals believe we should spend less on military, favor affirmative action, want to tax the rich more, want to guard defendants rights and so on. Conservatives favor free market solutions to the problems of the economy. They also are supportive of prayer in schools and they support the right to life. How Americans Vote: Explaining Citizens Decisions Chapter 10: Elections and Voting Behavior. The mandate theory of elections says that politicians because they were elected by a majority into office, have a mandate from the people to do as they please. Party identification is the number one indicator of a persons voting pattern. voter turnout tends to be very low in the United States compared to other Western Democracies. When the electorate agree more with the policy views of Candidate A than with those of Candidate B. This is often called the mandate theory of elections. Chapter 13: The Presidency Power from the People: The Public Presidency Public support is perhaps the greatest source of influence a president has. The higher the president stands in the polls, the easier it is to persuade others to support presidential initiatives. Mobilization of the public may be the ultimate weapon in the presidents arsenal of resources with which to influence Congress. Presidential approval is usually low. Public opinion can help the president in many ways. Chapter 6: Public Opinion and Political Action How Americans learn about Politics: Political Socialization the process through which an individual acquires his or her particular political orientations his or her knowledge, feelings, and evaluations regarding his or her political world. Through the family, media, and schools. Chapter 7: The Mass Media and the Political Agenda The News and Public Opinion The media is a key political institution that affects what Americans think about, therefore affecting what the electorate thinks is important. Voting and Participation in Politics Chapter 6: Public Opinion and Political Action How Americans Participate in Politics Those who are advantaged in socioeconomic terms (higher education, income, and occupation) are more likely to be politically active. Understanding Public Opinion and Political Action

Chapter 8: Political Parties The Party in the Electorate As organizations, American political parties are decentralized and fragmented. In America the formal party organizations have little power. Voters are usually attracted to different parties because of their performance and policies. Chapter 10: Elections and Voting Behavior How American Elections Work The United States has three general kinds of elections: primary elections in which voters select party nominees, general elections which are contested between the nominees of the parties, and elections on specific policy questions in which voters engage in making or ratifying legislation. Whether to Vote: A Citizens First Choice American electoral history has experienced an expansion of suffrage, the right to vote. Interestingly, as the right to vote has been extended, proportionately fewer of those eligible have chosen to exercise that right. Understanding Elections and Voting Behavior The greater the policy differences between candidates, the more likely voters will be able to steer government policies by their choices. However, the candidates do not always do their best to clarify the issues, often sidestepping controversial questions. Chapter 12: Congress Congressional Elections Incumbents are individuals who already hold office. Incumbents usually win. Ninety percent of the incumbents seeking reelection win. Senators typically win by narrower margins than House incumbents do because an entire state is more diverse than a congressional district, senators have less personal contact with their constituencies, senators receive more media coverage, and senators draw more visible challengers. Unit III Political Parties, Interest Groups, and Mass Media 10-20% of multiple-choice The Mass Media Chapter 7: The Mass Media and the Political Agenda The Mass Media Today Mass Media: Television, radio, newspapers, magazines, the Internet and other means of popular communication. Media Events: Events purposely staged for the media that nonetheless look spontaneous. Media events can be staged by almost anybody. The Development of Media Politics Introduction The news media wasnt always so important. Press Conferences: meetings of public officials with reporters ;Roosevelt used many of these. Investigative Journalism: the use of in-depth reporting to unearth scandals, scams & schemes putting reporters & politicians opposite each other. The Broadcast Media Television and radio Brought government and politics into peoples homes. Made the politicians more aware of their appearance and mannerisms. Television is the principal source of news for most Americans, and most believable. Government Regulation of the Broadcast Media The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulates the use of airwaves. Narrowcasting: Cable TV and the Internet

Media programming on cable TV or the Internet that is focused on one topic and aimed at a particular audience Private Control of the Media Only a small number of TV stations are publicly owned in America. The media are totally dependent on advertising revenues. Chains consist of massive media conglomerates that control almost three quarters of the nations daily newspaper circulation as well as broadcast media. Reporting the News Finding the News Beats: Specific locations from which news frequently emanates, such as Congress or the White House. Trial Balloons: An intentional news leak for the purpose of assessing the political reaction. Reporters and their sources depend on each other;one for stories, the other to get them out Presenting the News Superficial describes most news coverage today Sound Bites: Short video clips of approximately 15 seconds. Bias in the News Many people believe the news favors one point of view over another. Generally are not very biased along liberal / conservative lines. Generally are biased towards what will draw the largest audience. The News and Public Opinion Television news can affect what people think is important. The media influence the criteria by which the public evaluates political leaders. Some policies can be made more important, others will be less important, depending on their coverage. The Medias Agenda Setting Function Policy Agenda: The issues that attract the serious attention of public officials and other people actively involved in politics at the time. Policy Entrepreneurs: People who invest their political capital in an issue. All depend on good images and good will. Individualism and the Media Candidates can now run on their own. Easier to focus on one person like the President, than Congress or the courts. Chapter 13: The Presidency The President and the Press Presidents and media are often adversaries due to different goals Many people in the White House deal with the media, but the press secretary is the main contact person Media are often more interested in the person, not the policies Political Parties Chapter 8: Political Parties Meaning of Party Political Party: A team of men [and women] seeking to control the governing apparatus by gaining office in a duly constituted election. Parties can be thought of in three parts:

Party in the electorate Party as an organization Party in government Tasks of the Parties Linkage Institution: The channels through which peoples concerns become political issues on the governments policy agenda. Parties, Voters, and Policy: The Downs Model Rational choice theory: Assumes that individuals act in their own best interest, weighing the costs & benefits. The Party in the Electorate Party identification is a citizens self-proclaimed preference for one party or the other. Ticket-splitting: Voting with one party for one office and with another party for other offices. Ticket-splitting has become the norm in American voting behavior. The Party Organizations: From the Grass Roots to Washington These are the people that work for the party. Local Parties Party Machines: A type of political party organization that relies heavily on material inducements to win votes and to govern. Patronage: A job, promotion or contract given for political reasons rather than merit. Used by party machines. Now urban party organizations are generally weak. County organizations have partially filled the void. The 50 State Party Systems Closed primaries: voters must be registered with their party in advance and can only vote for that party Open primaries: voters decide on Election Day which party to participate in, and then only that party Blanket primaries: voters get a list of all candidates and can vote for one name for each office, regardless of party label State party organizations are on an upswing in terms of headquarters and budgets. The National Party Organizations National Convention: The meeting of party delegates every four years to choose a presidential ticket and the partys platform. National Committee: One of the institutions that keeps the party operating between conventions. National Chairperson: Responsible for day to day activities of the party. Critical Election An electoral earthquake where new issues and new coalitions emerge. Party Realignment The displacement of the majority party by the minority party, usually during a critical election. 17961824: The First Party System Madison warned of factions First party were the Federalists 18281856: Jackson and the Democrats Versus the Whigs Modern party founded by Jackson Whigs formed mainly in opposition to Democrats

18601928: The Two Republican Eras Republicans rose as the antislavery party 1896 election revolved around the gold standard 19321964: The New Deal Coalition Forged by the Democrats; relied upon urban working class, ethnic groups, Catholics and Jews, the poor, Southerners 1968Present: The Era of Divided Party Government Party realignment- disengagement of people from parties Party neutrality- people are indifferent towards the two parties Third Parties: Their Impact on American Politics Political parties other than Democrat or Republican Rarely win elections Third parties bring new groups and ideas into politics Two-party system discourages extreme views Proportional Representation: Legislative seats awarded based on votes received by the party; more votes, more seats Coalition Government: Two or more parties join to run government Understanding Political Parties Democracy and Responsible Party Government 1. Parties have distinct comprehensive programs. 2. Candidates are committed to the program. 3. Majority party must carry out its program. 4. Majority party must accept responsibility. American Political Parties and the Scope of Government Lack of uniformity keeps government small But, it also makes cutting government programs harder to do Is the Party Over? Political parties are no longer the chief source of information for voters State and national party organizations are getting stronger Majority of people still identify with a party, but still split their tickets Parties will continue to be around Chapter 6: Public Opinion and Political Action How Americans Participate in Politics Political Participation: All the activities used by citizens to influence the selection of political leaders or the policies they pursue. Conventional Participation Voting in elections Working in campaigns / running for office Contacting elected officials Protest as Participation Protest: A form of political participation designed to achieve policy changes through dramatic and unconventional tactics. Civil disobedience: A form of political participation that reflects a conscious decision to break a law believed to be immoral and to suffer the consequences. Campaigns and Elections Chapter 9: Nominations and Campaigns

 The Nomination Game Nomination: The official endorsement of a candidate for office by a political party. Generally, success requires momentum, money, and media attention. Campaign Strategy: The master plan candidates lay out to guide their electoral campaign. Deciding to Run Campaigns are physically and emotionally taxing. Other countries have short campaigns; generally less than 2 months. U.S. campaigns (especially for President) can last 18 months or more. Competing for Delegates The Caucus Road Caucus: Meetings of state party leaders. Used to select delegates. Now organized like a pyramid from local precincts to the states convention. Not used by many states. The Iowa caucus is first and considered the most important. The Primary Road Primary: Elections in which voters choose the nominee or delegates pledged to the nominee. Started by turn of the century reformers. Most states use one of the forms of a primary. Frontloading is the tendency of states to hold primaries early; New Hampshire is first. Generally primaries serve as elimination contests. Evaluating the Primary and Caucus System Disproportionate attention to the early ones. Prominent politicians find it difficult to make time to run. Money plays too big a role. Participation in primaries and caucuses is low and unrepresentative. The system gives too much power to the media. The Convention Send-off Once provided great drama, but now they are a basic formality- which means less TV time. Are still important to the party to get organized and motivated. Party platform: Statement of its goals and policies and general beliefs. Official nominations and candidate speeches. Organizing the Campaign Get a campaign manager Get a fundraiser & counsel Hire media and campaign consultants Assemble staff / plan the logistics Get research staff, policy advisors & pollsters Get a good press secretary Money and Campaigning The Maze of Campaign Finance Reforms Federal Election Campaign Act (1974) Created the FEC to administer campaign finance laws for federal elections. Created the Presidential Election Campaign Fund. Provided partial public financing for presidential primaries (matching funds). Provided full public financing for major party candidates in the general election. Required full disclosure.

Limited Contributions. Soft Money Contributions (with no limits) used for party-building expenses or generic party advertising McCain-Feingold Act (2002) banned soft money, increased amount individuals can contribute, and limited issue ads. The Proliferation of PACs Definition: Created by law in 1974 to allow corporations, labor unions and others to donate money to campaigns. As of 2004 there were 3,868 PACs. PACs contributed over $258 million to congressional candidates in 2002. Donate to candidates who support their issue, regardless of party affiliation Not sufficient data that PACs buy candidates Are Campaigns Too Expensive? Fund raising takes up lots of time. Incumbents do worse when they spend more money because they need it when they face tough challengers. The doctrine of sufficiency suggests that candidates need just enough money to win, not necessarily more. The Impact of Campaigns Campaigns have three effects on voters: Reinforcement, Activation, Conversion Mostly, they only reinforce & activate Selective perception: pay attention to things we agree with. Party identification still has an affect Incumbents start with a substantial advantage Understanding Nominations and Campaigns Are Nominations and Campaigns Too Democratic? Campaigns are open to almost everyone. Campaigns consume much time and money. Campaigns promote individualism in American politics. Chapter 10: Elections and Voting Behavior How Americans Vote: Explaining Citizens Decisions Mandate Theory of Elections The idea that the winning candidate has a mandate from the people to carry out his or her platforms and politics. Politicians like the theory better than political scientists do. Party Identification People generally vote for a party they agree with. Rise of candidate centered politics has changed this view. Now many voters are individualistic. Characteristics of each candidate have become more important than party. Candidate Evaluations: How Americans See the Candidates Candidates want a good visual image. Most important dimensions are integrity, reliability, and competence. Personality still plays a role. Policy Voting Basing your vote choice on issue preferences.

Must know where they and the candidates stand on issues and see differences between candidates. Candidates can be ambiguous on the issues. The press tends to focus on the horse race not the issues. Today candidates are forced to take a clear stand in the party primaries. The Last Battle: The Electoral College Electoral College actually elects the President - founders wanted him chosen by the elite of the country States choose the electors Winner-Take-All system gives bigger emphasis to more populated states How it works today: Each state has as many votes as it does Representatives and Senators. Winner of popular vote typically gets ALL the Electoral College votes. Electors meet in December, votes are reported by the vice president in January. If no candidate gets 270 votes (a majority), the House of Representatives votes for president, with each state getting ONE vote. Interest Groups Chapter 11: Interest Groups The Role and Reputation of Interest Groups Defining Interest Groups An organization of people with shared policy goals entering the policy process at several points to try to achieve those goals. Interest groups pursue their goals in many arenas. Political Parties fight election battles, Interest Groups dont, but they may choose sides. Interest Groups are policy specialists, Political Parties are policy generalists. Pluralist theory Politics is mainly a competition among groups, each one pressing for its own preferred policies. Many centers of power and many diverse, competing groups. No group wins or loses all the time. Groups provide the key link between the people and the government. Groups provide a key link between people and government. Groups compete. No one group is likely to become too dominant. Groups usually play by the rules of the game. Groups weak in one resource can use another. Elite theory Societies are divided along class lines and an upper-class elite rules, regardless of the formal niceties of governmental organization. Numerous groups mean nothing, power is not equally divided among them; some have much more. The largest corporations hold the most power. Elite power is strengthened by a system of interlocking directorates of these corporations and other institutions. Corporate elites are willing to lose the minor policy battles, but work to win the major policy issues in their favor. Lobbying is a problem because it benefits the few at the expense of the many. Hyperpluralist theory Groups are so strong that government is weakened. Extreme, exaggerated form of pluralism.

Subgovernments consist of a network of groups that exercise a great deal of control over specific policy areas. Interest groups have become too powerful as the government tries to serve every interest. The many subgovernments (iron triangles) aggravate the process. When the government tries to please all the groups, the policies become confusing and contradictory. With more interest groups getting involved, these subgovernments may be dissolving. What Makes an Interest Group Successful? The Surprising Ineffectiveness of Large Groups Potential group: All the people who might be interest group members because they share a common interest. Actual group: The part of the potential group consisting of members who actually join. Collective good: Something of value that cannot be withheld from a group member Free-Rider problem: Some people dont join interest groups because they benefit from the groups activities without officially joining. The bigger the group, the larger the free-rider problem. (Olsons law of large groups) Large groups are difficult to keep organized. Small groups are better organized and more focused on the groups goals. Consumer groups have a difficult time getting significant policy gains; the benefits are spread over the entire population. Groups that can provide selective benefits can overcome this problem. What makes an interest group successful? Intensity Single-Issue groups: Groups that focus on a narrow interest and dislike compromise. Groups may focus on an emotional issue, providing them with a psychological advantage. May be more likely to use protests and other means of political participation than traditional interest groups that use lobbyists. The Interest Group Explosion How Groups Try to Shape Policy Lobbying communication by someone other than a citizen acting on his own behalf, directed to a governmental decision maker with the hope of influencing his decision. (Lester Milbrath) Two basic types: Those that are employed by a group, and those that are hired temporarily. Lobbyists are a source of information. Lobbyists can help politicians plan political strategies for legislation. Lobbyists can help politicians plan political strategies for reelection campaigns. Lobbyists can provide ideas and innovations that can be turned into policies that the politician can take credit for. Electioneering Direct group involvement in the election process. Political Action Committee (PAC): Used by interest groups to donate money to candidates. PACs help pay the bill for increasing campaign costs. Most PAC money goes to incumbents. Litigation If an interest group fails in one arena, the courts may be able to provide a remedy. Interest groups can file amicus curiae briefs in court cases to support their position. Class Action lawsuits permit small groups of people to try and correct a situation on behalf of a much larger group.

Going Public Groups try and cultivate a good public image. Groups use marketing strategies to influence public opinion of the group and its issues. Groups will purchase advertising to motivate the public about an issue. Types of Interest Groups Economic Interests Labor Agriculture Business Environmental Interests Equality Interests Consumer and Public Interest Lobbies Understanding Interest Groups Interest Groups and Democracy James Madisons solution to the problems posed by interest groups was to create a wide open system in which groups compete. Elite theorists point to the proliferation of business PACs as evidence of interest group corruption. Hyperpluralists maintain that group influence has led to policy gridlock. Interest Groups and the Scope of Government Interest groups seek to maintain policies and programs that benefit them. Interest groups continue to pressure government to do more things. But as the government does more things, does that cause the formation of more groups? Unit IV Institutions of National Government 35-45% of multiple-choice Congress Chapter 12: Congress The Representatives and Senators House: There are 435 seats in House Lead by Speaker of the House Elected by House members. Presides over House. Major role in committee assignments and legislation. Assisted by majority leader and whips. The Senate: Formerly lead by Vice President, really lead by Majority Leader chosen by party members. He is assisted by whips and must work with Minority leader. Committees: Standing committees: subject matter committees handle different policy areas. Joint committees: few policy areas made up of House & Senate members. Conference committees: resolve differences in House and Senate bills. Select committees: created for a specific purpose. The Committees at Work: Legislation and Oversight Committees work on the 11,000 bills every session. Some hold hearings and mark up meetings. Oversight involves hearings and other methods of checking the actions of the executive branch. As the size of government grows, oversight grows too. Getting on a Committee Members want committee assignments that will help them get reelected, gain influence, and make policy. New members express their committee preferences to the party leaders. Support of the party is important in getting on the right committee. Parties try to grant committee preferences.

Getting Ahead on the Committee: Chairs and the Seniority System The chair is the most important position for controlling legislation. Chairs were once chosen strictly by the seniority system. Now seniority is a general rule, and members may choose the chair of their committee. Caucuses: The Informal Organization of Congress Caucus: A group of members of Congress sharing some interest or characteristic. Caucuses pressure for committee meetings and hearings and for votes on bills. Caucuses can be more effective than lobbyists. Congressional Staff Personal staff: Work for the member. Mainly providing constituent service, but help with legislation too. Committee staff: organize hearings, research & write legislation, target of lobbyists. Staff Agencies: CRS, GAO, CBO provide specific information to Congress. Legislation: Bill: A proposed law. Anyone can draft a bill, but only members of Congress can introduce them. More rules in the House than in the Senate. Party leaders play a vital role in steering bills through both houses, but less in the Senate. Congressional Elections The Advantages of Incumbents Advertising: The goal is to be visible to your voters. Frequent trips home & newsletters are used. Credit Claiming: Service to individuals in their district. Casework: specifically helping constituents get what they think they have a right to. Pork Barrel: federal projects, grants, etc. made available in a congressional district or state. Position Taking: Portray themselves as hard working, dedicated individuals. Occasionally take a partisan stand on an issue. Weak Opponents: Most opponents are inexperienced in politics. Most opponents are unorganized and underfunded. Campaign Spending: Challengers need to raise large sums to defeat an incumbent. PACs give most of their money to incumbents. Does PAC money buy votes in Congress? The Role of Party Identification Most members represent the majority party in their district. Defeating Incumbents Some incumbents face problems after a scandal or other complication in office. They may face redistricting. They may become a victim of a major political tidal wave. Open Seats Greater likelihood of competition. Stability and Change Incumbents provide stability in Congress. Change in Congress occurs less frequently through elections. Are term limits an answer?

- How Congress is Organized to Make Policy American Bicameralism Bicameral: Legislature divided into two houses. - The Congressional Process Presidents and Congress: Partners and Protagonists Presidents have many resources to influence Congress (often called the Chief Legislator). In order to win in Congress, the president must win several battles in each house. Presidential leadership of Congress is at the margins and is most effective as a facilitator. Presidents and Congress: Partners and Protagonists Presidents have many resources to influence Congress (often called the Chief Legislator). Presidential leadership of Congress is at the margins and is most effective as a facilitator. Party, Constituency, and Ideology Party Influence: Party leaders cannot force party members to vote a particular way, but many do vote along party lines. Constituency versus Ideology: Most constituents are uninformed about their member. It is difficult for constituents to influence their member, but on controversial issues members cannot ignore constituents. Lobbyists and Interest Groups There are several thousand lobbyists trying to influence Congress the bigger the issue, the more lobbyists will be working on it. Lobbyists can be ignored, shunned and even regulated by Congress. Ultimately, it is a combination of lobbyists and others that influence members of Congress. The Presidency People from many different backgrounds have become presidents. The 22nd amendment limits the presidents to two terms in office. Presidential Powers National Security Powers: Serve as commander in chief of the armed forces Make treaties with other nations, subject to the agreement of twothirds of the Senate Nominate ambassadors, with the agreement of a majority of the Senate Receive ambassadors of other nations, thereby conferring diplomatic recognition on other governments Legislative Powers: Present information on the state of the union to Congress Recommend legislation to Congress Convene both houses of Congress on extraordinary occasions Adjourn Congress if the House and Senate cannot agree on adjournment Veto legislation (Congress may overrule with twothirds vote of each house) Administrative Powers: Take care that the laws be faithfully executed Nominated officials as provided for by Congress and with the agreement of a majority of the Senate Request written opinions of administrative officials Fill administrative vacancies during congressional recesses Judicial Powers: Grant reprieves and pardons for federal offenses (except impeachment) Nominate federal judges, who are confirmed by a majority of the Senate The President and National Security Policy Chief Diplomat: Negotiates treaties with other countries Treaties must be approved by the Senate

Use executive agreements to take care of routine matters with other countries May negotiate for peace between other countries Lead U.S. allies in defense & economic issues Commander in Chief Writers of the constitution wanted civilian control of the military Presidents often make important military decisions Presidents command a standing military and nuclear arsenal unthinkable 200 years ago War Powers Constitution gives Congress the power to declare war, but presidents can commit troops and equipment in conflicts War Powers Resolution was intended to limit the presidents use of the military but may be unconstitutional Presidents continue to test the limits of using the military in foreign conflicts Crisis Manager A crisis is a sudden, unpredictable, and potentially dangerous event. The role the president plays can help or hurt the presidential image. With current technology, the president can act much faster than Congress to resolve a crisis. Working with Congress President has lead role in foreign affairs. Presidents still have to work with Congress for support and funding of foreign policies. Formal Requirements: Must be 35 years old, Must be a naturalborn citizen, Must have resided in U.S. for 14 years Informal Requirements: White, Male, Protestant (except one) All manner of professions, but mostly political ones (former state governors, for example) Succession and Impeachment President Disability Vice President succeeds if the president leaves office due to death, resignation, or removal. Impeachment is investigated by the House, and if impeached, tried by the Senate with the Chief Justice presiding. Only two presidents have been impeached: A. Johnson & Clinton neither was convicted. The 25th Amendment clarifies what happens if the president becomes disabled. Running the Government: The Chief Executive The Vice President Basically just waits for things to do Recent presidents have given their VPs important jobs The Cabinet Presidential advisors, not in Constitution Is made up of the top executives of the Federal Departments, confirmed by the Senate The Executive Office Made up of several policymaking and advisory bodies Three principle groups: NSC (National Security Council) , CEA (Council of Economic Advisors) , OMB The White House Staff Chief aides and staff for the president some are more for the White House than the president Presidents rely on their information and effort The First Lady No official government position, but many get involved politically Recent ones focus on a single issue Party Support: Presidents cannot always count on party support, especially on controversial issues Presidents can offer party candidates support and punishment by withholding favors.

Presidential coattails occur when voters cast their ballots for congressional candidates of the presidents party because they support the president. Mandates Perception that the voters strongly support the presidents character and policies Mandates are infrequent, but presidents may claim a mandate anyway Legislative Skills Variety of forms: bargaining, making personal appeals, consulting with Congress, setting priorities, etc. Most important is bargaining with Congress. Presidents can use their honeymoon period to their advantage. Power from the Public: The Public Presidency Public support is perhaps the greatest source of influence a president has. Presidential appearances are staged to get the publics attention. As head of state, presidents often perform many ceremonial functions, which usually result in favorable press coverage. The Federal Courts Chapter 16: The Federal Courts The Nature of the Judicial System Two types of cases: Criminal Law: The government charges an individual with violating one or more specific laws. Civil Law: The court resolves a dispute between two parties and defines the relationship between them. Most cases are tried and resolved in state courts, not federal courts. The Structure of the Federal Judicial System District Courts: Courts that hear the case first and determine the facts the trial court. Federal crimes: Civil suits under federal law and across state lines Supervise bankruptcy and naturalization Review some federal agencies Admiralty and maritime law cases Courts of Appeal: Appellate Jurisdiction: reviews the legal issues in cases brought from lower courts. Hold no trials and hear no testimony. 12 circuit courts U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit specialized cases Focus on errors of procedure & law The Supreme Court 9 justices 1 Chief Justice, 8 Associate Justices Supreme Court decides which cases it will hear Some original jurisdiction, but mostly appellate jurisdiction. Most cases come from the federal courts Most cases are civil cases The Politics of Judicial Selection The Lower Courts Senatorial Courtesy: Unwritten tradition where a judge is not confirmed if a senator of the presidents party from the state where the nominee will serve opposes the nomination. Has the effect of the president approving the Senates choice President has more influence on appellate level The Supreme Court President relies on attorney general and DOJ to screen candidates. 1 out of 5 nominees will not make it. Presidents with minority party support in the Senate will have more trouble. Chief Justice can be chosen from a sitting justice, or a new member.

Characteristics: Generally white males Lawyers with judicial and often political experience Other Factors: Generally of the same party as the appointing president The Courts as Policymakers Accepting Cases: Use the rule of four to choose cases. Issues a writ of certiorari to call up the case. Very few cases are actually accepted each year. Making Decisions: Oral arguments may be made in a case. Justices discuss the case. One justice will write the majority opinion (statement of legal reasoning behind a judicial decision) on the case. Dissenting opinions are written by justices who oppose the majority. Concurring opinions are written in support of the majority but stress a different legal basis. Stare decisis: to let the previous decision stand unchanged. Precedents: How similar past cases were decided. Original Intent: The idea that the Constitution should be viewed according to the original intent of the framers. Implementing Court Decisions Must rely on others to carry out decisions Interpreting population: understand the decision Implementing population: the people who need to carry out the decision may be disagreement Consumer population: the people who are affected (or could be) by the decision The Courts and the Policy Agenda Understanding Courts Courts are not very democratic Not elected Difficult to remove The courts do reflect popular majorities Groups are likely to use the courts when other methods fail promoting pluralism There are still conflicting rulings leading to deadlock and inconsistency What Courts Should Do: The Scope of Judicial Power Judicial restraint: judges should play a minimal policymaking role leave the policies to the legislative branch. Judicial activism: judges should make bold policy decisions and even charting new constitutional ground. Political questions: means of the federal courts to avoid deciding some cases. Statutory construction: the judicial interpretation of an act of Congress. The Bureaucracy Chapter 15: The Federal Bureaucracy Classic conception of bureaucracy (Max Weber) Hierarchical authority structure Uses task specialization Operate on the merit principle Behave with impersonality A wellorganized machine with lots of working parts. Some Bureaucratic Myths and Realities Americans dislike bureaucrats. Bureaucracies are growing bigger each year. Most federal bureaucrats work in Washington, D.C. Bureaucracies are ineffective, inefficient and always mired in red tape. Who They Are and How They Got There

Most demographically representative part of government. Diversity of jobs mirrors the private sector. Civil Service: From Patronage to Protection. Patronage: Job given for political reasons. Civil Service: System of hiring and promotion based on merit and nonpartisanship (Pendleton Civil Service Act). Merit Principle: Entrance exams and promotion ratings to find people with talent and skill. Office of Personnel Management: The federal office in charge of most of the governments hiring. The Other Route to Federal Jobs: Recruiting from the Plum Book Lists the very top jobs available for Presidential appointment. Presidents work to find capable people to fill the positions. Some plum jobs (ambassadorships) are patronage. Their most important trait is transience. How Bureaucracies are organized The Cabinet Departments 13 Cabinet departments headed by a secretary Department of Justice headed by Attorney General Each has its own budget, staff and policy areas Status as a cabinet department can be controversial. Independent Regulatory Agency: Responsible for some sector of the economy making rules and judging disputes to protect the public interest. Headed by a commission of 510 people. Rule making is an important function watched by interest groups and citizens alike. Concern over capture of the agencies. The Government Corporations Business like provide services like private companies and typically charge for their services. Postal Service, Amtrak are examples Independent Executive Agencies The agencies that dont fit in anywhere else. GSA and NASA are examples Bureaucracies as Implementers Implementation includes: Creating / assigning an agency the policy Translating policy into rules, regulations and forms. Coordinating resources to achieve the goals. A Case Study: The Voting Rights Act of 1965 Generally considered a success. Had a clear, concise goal. The implementation was clear. Those carrying out the law had obvious authority and vigor to do so. Bureaucracies as Regulators Regulation in the Economy and in Everyday Life Regulation: Use of governmental authority to control or change some practice in the private sector. Federal agencies check, verify and inspect many of the products and services we take for granted. Federal and state agencies provide many services. Regulation: How It Grew, How It Works CommandandControl Policy: Government tells business how to reach certain goals, checks the progress and punishes offenders. Incentive System: Market like strategies are used to manage public policy. Some agencies are proactive, some are reactive. Toward Deregulation

Deregulation: The lifting of restrictions on business, industry, and professional activities. Regulatory problems: Raises prices Hurts U.S.s competitive position abroad Does not always work well But some argue regulation is needed. Understanding Bureaucracies Presidents Try to Control the Bureaucracy Appoint the right people. Issue executive orders. Tinker with the agencys budget. Reorganize an agency. Chapter 20: Foreign and Defense Policymaking - American Foreign Policy: Instruments, Actors, and Policymakers Instruments of Foreign Policy Three types of tools: Military Economic Diplomatic Military is the oldest and still used Economic is becoming more powerful Diplomatic is the quietest of the tools Actors on the World Stage International Organizations (UN) Regional Organizations (NATO, EU) Multinational Corporations Nongovernmental Organizations Individuals Isolationism: Foreign policy where the U.S. tries to stay out of other nations conflicts, particularly in Europe. Monroe Doctrine: U.S. official statement of isolationism World War I: Basically ended the policy of isolationism The Cold War Containment Abroad and Anti-Communism at Home The Swelling of the Pentagon (arms race) The Vietnam War The Reagan Rearmament Defense budget had been declining since the mid-1950s. Reagan added some $32 billion to the defense budget in his first term in office to oppose the Soviet buildup. Strategic Defense Initiative: using computers and other equipment to defend against Soviet missiles from space (Star Wars). The Final Thaw in the Cold War. George H.W. Bush proposed to move beyond containment to integrate the Soviet Union into the community of nations. Leadership of the Soviet Union supported the ending of communism and split into separate nations. East and West Germany united. The War on Terrorism War on terrorism became highest priority of George W. Bush administration after 9/11. Bush supported preemptive strikes against terrorists and hostile states.

International relations has entered an era of improvisation. Balance of Power Chapter 13: The Presidency - Presidential Leadership of Congress: The Policies of Shared Powers Chief Legislator Veto: Sending a bill back to Congress with his reasons for rejecting it. Can be overridden. Pocket Veto: Letting a bill die by not signing it - only works when Congress is adjourned. Line Item Veto: The ability to veto parts of a bill. Some state governors have it, but not the president. Vetoes are most used to prevent legislation. Party Leadership The Bonds of Party The psychological bond of being in the presidents party Slippage in Party Support Presidents cannot always count on party support, especially on controversial issues Leading the Party Presidents can offer party candidates support and punishment by withholding favors. Presidential coattails occur when voters cast their ballots for congressional candidates of the presidents party because they support the president. Public Support Public Approval Operates mostly in the background Public approval gives the president leverage, not command Mandates Perception that the voters strongly support the presidents character and policies Mandates are infrequent, but presidents may claim a mandate anyway Legislative Skills Variety of forms: bargaining, making personal appeals, consulting with Congress, setting priorities, etc. Most important is bargaining with Congress. Presidents can use their honeymoon period to their advantage. Nations key agenda builder Unit V Public Policy 5-15% of multiple-choice Policy making in a Federal Chapter 12: Congress System - How Congress is Organized to Make Policy bicameral legislature meaning that the Congress is divide dinto the House and the Senate House Rules Committee- revises bills except revenue, bu get, and appropriation bills coming from House committee before it goes to the full House House impeaches President and senate tries them Senate confirms Presidential appointees House has power to iniatie revenue bills filibuster- unlimited debate in senate Speaker of the House- chief among house and is chosen by majority party majority leader- schedules bills influencing committee assignments and rounding up votes in belhalf of the partys legislative positions

whips work with them^ to count votes and deciding favored bills minority leader- leader over the minority party standing committees- bills in different policy area Joint committees- exist in dew policy areas with membership Conference committees- House or Senate pass a particular bill in different forms select committees- appointed for a specific purpose legislative oversight is used to monitor big businesses committe chairs- schedule hearings, and appoint subcommitee members senoirty system- ENDED in 1970. it picked committe chairs caucus- group that shares a common interest

- The Congressional Policy Chapter 13: The Presidency - Presidential Leadership of Congress: The Policies of Shared Powers President can veto a bill and do a pocket veto in which he just lets it die after 10 days of the bill being submitttied to him Presidents must remain highly dependent on their party to move their legislative programs Presidential coattails occur when a person votes for a congressional canidate of the same party as the President becuse they support President Presidents most key resource is public support. Usually their presidental approval drpos as their terms go deeper mandate- perception that the voters strongly support presidents characer and policy Chapter 15: The Federal Bureaucracy - Bureaucracies as Implementers they implement policy by translating goals and objectives of a policy into a operating , ongoing program street level bureaucrats- constantly in contact with the public Chapter 7: The Mass Media and the Political Agenda - The Medias Agenda-Setting Function media helps set the agenda. the policy agenda are things that attract serious attention political activists use media to set their agenda Chapter 8: Political Parties - The Party in Government: Promises and Policy A party wants a representative in office to express their views and pass bills coalition- group of people who share a common interenst Chapter 9: Nominations and Campaigns - Money and Campaigning Money is key to being elected Federal Election Campaign Act- created FEC and provided financing to presidential primaries and general elections, limited campaign spending, required disclosure(file reports to FEC about spending), limited contributions PACs are interest groups that give money to campaigns

Formation of Policy Agendas

Chapter 11: Interest Groups - How Groups Try to Shape Policy interest groups looby politicans to get the policy they want they also use electioneering and PACs to help finace the politiancs campain and support the to get the policy they want passed They also use litigation and amicus curiae briefs to lobby courts - Type of Interest Groups there are labor, agriculture, and business Chapter 16: The Federal Courts - The Politics of Judicial Selection senatorial courtesy in lower courts and appointed by President in Supreme Court Often they have been involved in partisan politics - The Courts as Policymakers Court sets own agenda chooses what cases to do mostly civil liberties solicitor general- in charge of the appellate court litigation of the Federal Government Vast majority reaching appellate courts are settled on principle and precedents(based on past) - The Courts and the Policy Agenda judicial review- deciding whether acts of Congress are in tact with the Constitution Warren court- segregation, one person one vote Burger Court- Miranda, Roe v. Wade, U.S v. Nixon Rehnquist court- Bush v. Gore etc... Policy Chapter 14: The Congress, the President, and the Budget - Sources of Federal Revenue income tax- shares of individual wages and corporate revenues collected by gov. (progressive) 16th amendment- permitted Congress to levy income tax Social Insurance taxes are deducted from paychecks which benefits the elderly Another way is borrowing form other countries which increase the federal debt tax loopholes- a tax break or tax benefit tax expenditures- revenue losses that result from special exemptions or deductions on federal tax law tax reduction- reducing the tax or increasing for rich - Federal Expenditures big governments have to have big budgets to run Social Security Act- intended to give minimal support to elderly Medicare- hospitalization insurance to elderly incrementalism - belief that budget will be same as last year with a little more uncontrollable expenditures are based on how many eligible beneficiaries there are for a program entitlements have a specific amount of benefits for a certain # of people - The Budgetary Process The players in the budgetary process is the House Ways and Means committee which writes taxes codes subject to approval of Congress (does this with Senate Finance Committee) Presidents must propose budget to Congress

Fiscal

Congressional Budget and Inpoundment Control Act of 1974- fixed budget calender, made a budget committee in each house, and made CBO which advises Congress on consequences of budget decisions, etc reconciliation- program authorizations are revised to achieve required savings authorization bill- establishes a discretionary government program or an entilitlemnt that continues or changes such programs appropriations bill- An act of Congress that actually funds programs within limits by last years authorizatioon bill

- Understanding Budgeting There has been a growth in budget Economic Policy Chapter 17: Economic Policymaking - Government and the Economy capitalism is what the U.S uses and is an economics system in which individuals and corporations own the principal means of production and seek profit U.S is starting to become more of a mixed economy in which government is starting to get involved The unemployment rate is the proportion of the labor force actively seeking work but unable to find it inflation occurs when there is a rise in prices for consumer goods CPI- measures inflation - Instruments for Controlling the Economy laissez-faire is the principle that government should not meddle with the economy monetary policy is used to influence the economy. it is the manipulation of the supply of money im private hands in which the government can control the economy Federal Reserve System- key to monetary policy and is used to regulate money supply fiscal policy describes the impact of federal budget on the economy Keynesian economic theory states that gov. spending and deficits can help the economy whether its normal ups and downs supply-side economics- too much income goes to taxes so too little money is available for purchasing - Arenas of Economic Policymaking transnational corporations- businesses with branches in other countries antitrust policy was created to prevent monopoly FDA- monitor foods and drugs FTC- monitor radios and T.V National Labor-Relations Act- right to collective bargaining which is negations for pay and working conditions Taft-Hartley Act- gives president power to halt major strikes by seeking court injunction and permitting states to forbid requirement in labor contacts - Understanding Economic Policymaking economy is growing as population grows increases the scope of the government Social Policy Chapter 18: Social Welfare Policymaking provides to those in need 70 million people live in poverty 3 taxes, progressive takes from the rich, regressive takes from the poor, proportional takes from both social security started after the Great Depression in social welfare policy making groups are on unequal terms

Chapter 19: Policymaking for Health Care and the Environment - Health Care Policy one of the largest components of Americas economy not all Americans have access to healthcare; the higher your income the more likely you are to be insured Congress passed Medicare as a part of Social Security in 1965 no single institution pays medical bills - Environmental Policy states compete for economic develpoment EPA in charge of land use and air and water quality Global Warming is a big problem environmental concerns conflict with foreign trade - Energy Policy - Groups, Energy, and the Environment - Understanding Health Care and Environmental Policy Foreign Policy Chapter 20: Foreign and Defense Policymaking - American Foreign Policy: Instruments, Actors,

and Policymakers The president is the main force behind foreign policy The DOD is main foreign policy actor Communism during the Cold war affected domestic policy- brought forth idea of containment - The Politics of Defense Policy Defense spending makes up one-sixth of federal budget Military might is no longer the primary instrument of foreign policy American policy makers have attempted to halt the spread of nuclear weapons Most troublesome issue in national security is terrorism The stability of the U.S economy has attracted foreign investors The gap between rich and poor nations is widening

Unit VI Civil Rights and Civil Liberties 5-15% of multiple-choice Civil Liberties and Chapter 4: Civil Liberties and Public Policy Judicial Interpretation - Freedom of Religion Establishment Clause- Part of the First Amendment stating that Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion Free Exercise Clause- A First Amendment provision that prohibits government from interfering with the practice of religion Lemon V. Kurtzman- the 1971 Supreme Cort Case that aid to church related schools 1. must have a secular legislative purpose 2. have a primary effect that neither advances nor inbits religion and 3. not foster excessive government entanglement with religion Zelman V. Simmions-Harris- The 2002 Supreme Court desion that upheld a stat providing families with vouchers that could be used to pay for tuition at religious schools

Engel v. Vitale- The 1962 Supreme court desion holding that holding state officials violated the First Amendment when they wrote a prayer to be recited by N.Y. schoolchildren School District of Abington Township, Pennsylvania V. Schempp- A 1963 Supreme Court decision holding that a Pennsylvania law requiring Bible reading in schools violated the Establishment cause of the First Amendment - Freedom of Expression Prior Restraint- A government preventing material from being published. This is a common method of limiting the press in some nations, but it is usually unconstitutional in the U.S according to the 1st amendment and as confirmed in the 1931 Supreme Court Case of Near V. Minnesota Near v. Minnesota- The 1931 Supreme decision holding that the 1st amendment protects newspapers from prior restraint Schenck V. U.S- A 1919 decision upholding the conviction of a socialist who had urged young men to resist the draft during WWI. Justice Homes declared that government can limit speech provokes a clear and present danger of substantive evils - Defendants Rights Every criminal brought to Court has certain rights that given to them One of them is right to unreasonable search and seizures Probable Clause- police have the right to believe that a person should be arrested. The police are allow to search and seize possible evidence 14th amendment forbids unreasonable searches and seizures which are evidence that are random searches and haphazard. Police need search warrant to search which is authorized by the Court The Exclusionary rule says that no matter how incriminating evidence from illegal searches Mapp v. Ohio rules that protection against unreasonable search and seizures extended to states as well as national government 5th amendment forbids self incrimination and punishment without due process of law self - incrimination is when the criminal is a witness in a court case Miranda v. Arizona protects criminals against self incrimination and protect their right to counsel 6th amendment- right to counsel, right to confront witness, and right to a speedy public trail Gideon v. Wainwright- right to lawyer to anyone accused of felony Plea bargaining- a bargain in order to reduce the prosecution of the criminal. Most court cases end up in a plea bargain 8th amendment- forbids cruel and unusual punishment but did not define this phrase( applies to the states) cruel and unusual punishment is prohibited but mandatory death penalties for certain events are unconstitutional Gregg v. Georgia - death sentence not cruel and unusual punishment - The Right to Privacy right to privacy- right to free personal life from government Roe v. Wade was the biggest right to privacy case( in vocab if u need definition) - Understanding Civil Liberties All of them are key to the democracy and key to a good American life Civil Rights and the Chapter 5: Civil Rights and Public Policy

14th Amendment - Racial Equality: Two Centuries of Struggle Life as tough for slaves and Scott v. Sanford said that slaves that escaped to free states enjoyed no rights as a U.S citizen 13th amendment freed slaves Jim Crow laws kept whites and blacks separate and Plessy v. Ferguson said that it was constitutional with equal accommodations Brown v. BOE ruled segregation in schools was unconstitutional Civil Rights Act of 1964 made racial discrimination illegal in public places suffrage is the right to vote and blacks got it through 15th amendment poll taxes( small taxes to vote), white primaries(excluded blacks from political parties), and gerrymandering(redistricting) were ways to make blacks not to vote 24th amendment- poll taxes are unconstitutional Voting Rights Act of 1965- end formal and informal barriers to make African- Americans not wanting to vote - Race, Equality: Two Centuries of Struggle equal protection of the laws said the that everyone got equal protection from the laws - Women, the Constitution, and Public Policy 19th amendment- women have the right to vote Equal Rights Amendment- FAILED and was never passed Reed v. Reed- upheld claim of gender discrimination Craig v. Boren- medium scrutiny standard for determining gender discrimination Comparable worth- the issue that females get paid less than males - Newly Active Groups under the Civil Rights Umbrella Young are disadvantaged because people look down on them. American with Disabilities Act of 1990- reasonable accommodations for people wit disabilities and prohibts discrimination against these individuals in employment - Affirmative Action affirmative action- a policy design to give special attention to disadvantaged group Regents v...( in vocab)- Understanding Civil Rights and Public Policy 14th amendment gives everyone equal protection of the law Civil Rights Act of 1964 stopped discrimination 19th amendment gave women the right to vote

25 Important Court Cases: McCulloch v Maryland: - sate v national power -It established that the national government has supremacy over the state governments. Congress had certain implied powers in addition to the enumerated powers given to them in the Constitution. - The Chief Justice was John Marshall - It was heard in 1819. Gibbons v Ogden -who regulates interstate and international commerce? -Article 1 Section 8 of the Constitution was interpreted as giving Congress the power to regulate interstate commerce, encompassing virtually every form of commercial activity. This has been the constitutional basis for the Congresss regulation of the economy.

- John Marshall -1824 Barron v Baltimore -Does the Bill of Rights apply to the state governments? - The Court decided that the Bill of Rights restrained only the national government, not the states. -John Marshall -1833 Gitlow v New York -Does the Bill of Rights apply to the states? -The Court said that the freedoms of the press and speech are fundamental personal rights and liberties protected by the due process clause of the 14th amendment from impairment by the states as well as by the national government. Basically the Court decided that the Bill of Rights does apply to the states. -Taft -1925 Lemon v Kurtzman -The separation between religion and government -The Court established that aid to church related schools must have a secular legislative purpose, have a primary effect that neither advances nor inhibits religion, and doesnt foster excessive government entanglement with religion. -Burger -1971

Mapp v Ohio - Defendants rights, exclusionary rule in gathering evidence -The Court said that the 14th amendments protection against unreasonable searches and seizures must be extended to the states as well as to the federal government. -Warren -1961 Miranda v Arizona -self incrimination - sets guidelines for police questioning of accused persons to protect them against self incrimination and to protect their right to counsel. -Warren -1966 Gideon v Wainwright -right to an attorney (6th amendment) -held that anyone accused of a felony where imprisonment may be imposed, however poor he or she may be, has a right to a lawyer. -Warren -1963 Gregg v Georgia -constitutionality of the death sentence -upheld the constitutionality of the death sentence, saying that it is an extreme sanction, suitable to the most extreme of crimes. Death sentence is not a form of unusual or cruel punishment. -Burger -1976 Roe v Wade -right to privacy -held that a state (Texas) ban on all abortions was unconstitutional. The decision forbade state control over abortions during the 1st trimester of pregnancy, permitted states to limit abortions to protect

the mothers health in the 2nd trimester, and permitted states to protect the fetus during the 3rd trimester. -Burger -1973 Plessy v Ferguson -segregation -constitutionally justified segregation by ruling that a Louisiana law requiring separate but equal accommodations for whites and coloreds was unconstitutional. -Fuller -1896 Brown v Board of Education (Topeka Kansas) -legality of school segregation/ all segregation - The Court held that school segregation in Topeka, Kansas was inherently unconstitutional because it violated the 14th amendments guarantee of equal protection. This case marked the end of legal segregation in the U.S. -Warren -1954 Marbury v Madison -judicial review -asserted the right of the Supreme Court to determine meaning of US Constitution. Established the Courts power of judicial review over acts of congress, in this case the Judiciary Act of 1789. -John Mashall -1803

Engel v Vitale -1st amendment/religion -state officials violated the 1st amendment when they wrote a prayer to be recited by NY schoolchildren -Warren -1962 Texas v Johnson -1st amendment -Flag burning is constitutionally allowed as symbolic speech. -Rehnquist -1989 Scott v Sanford -Slaves rights/ Citizens Rights -The Court said that a slave who had escaped to a free state enjoyed no rights as a citizen and that Congress had no authority to ban slavery in the territories. -Taney -1857 Schenk v US -free speech -The Court upheld the conviction of a socialist who had urged young men to resist the draft during World War 1. Justice Holmes declared that government can limit speech if the speech provokes a clear and present danger of substantive evils. - White -1919 Regents of the University of California v Bakke -Affirmative action -The Supreme Court held that a state university could not admit less qualified individuals simply because of their race.

-Burger -1978 Near v MInnesota - freedom of the press -The Court held that the 1st amendment protects newspapers from prior restraint -Hughes -1931 MIller v California -Obscenity -The Court held that community standards should be used while determining whether material is obscene. The Court also avoided defining obscenity. -Burger -1973 NAACP v Alabama -Freedom of Assembly -The Court protected the right to assemble peacefully where it said that the NAACP did not have to give up membership lists -Warren -1958 Korematsu v US - internment of Japanese -The Court upheld the internment of Japanese Americans during WW2. -Stone -1944 US v Nixon -Rights of Presidentss -The Court held that the doctrine of executive privilege was implicit in the Constitution, but it did not extend to protect documents relevant to criminal prosecutions. -Burger -1974 Griswold v Connecticut -Right to Privacy - The Court upheld that the Constitution protected the right to privacy, such as the use of contraceptives. -Warren -1965 Baker v Carr -gerrymandering -was a landmark United States Supreme Court case that retreated from the Court's political question doctrine, deciding that redistricting (attempts to change the way voting districts are delineated) issues present justiciable questions, thus enabling federal courts to intervene in and to decide reapportionment cases. - Warren -1962